Portia (spider)

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Portia is a genus of jumping spider that feeds on other spiders (i.e., they are arachnophagic). They are remarkable for their intelligent hunting behaviour, which suggests that they are capable of learning and problem solving, traits normally attributed to much larger animals.<ref>Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.</ref>

Taxonomy and evolutionEdit

The genus was established in 1878 by German arachnologist Friedrich Karsch. The fringed jumping spider (Portia fimbriata) is the type species.<ref name=WSC_g2903/>

Molecular phylogeny, a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to construct the tree of life, indicates that Portia is a member of a basal clade (i.e. quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders) and that the Spartaeus, Phaeacius, and Holcolaetis genera are its closest relatives.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Wanless divided the genus Portia into two species groups: the schultzi group, in which males' palps have a fixed tibial apophysis; and the kenti group, in which the apophysis of each palp in the males has a joint separated by a membrane.<ref name="auto">Template:Cite journal</ref> The schultzi group includes P. schultzi, P. africana, P. fimbriata, and P. labiata.<ref name="auto"/>

At least some species of Portia are in the state of reproductive isolation: in a laboratory, male P. africana copulated with female P. labiata, but no eggs were laid; during all cases, the female P. labiata twisted and lunged in an attempt to bite.Template:R

Some specimens found trapped in Oligocene amber were identified as related to Portia.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Distribution and ecologyEdit

The 17 described species are found in Africa, Australia, China, Madagascar, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Vietnam.<ref name=WSC_g2903/>

Portia are vulnerable to larger predators such as birds and frogs, which a Portia often cannot identify because of the predator's size.<ref name="HarlandJackson2000Cats">Template:Cite journal</ref> Some insects prey on Portia, for example, mantises, the assassin bugs Nagusta sp. indet. and Scipinnia repax (that is, Scipinia rapax <ref>"Scipinia is a genus of true bugs in the family assassin bugs." Encyclopedia of Life. Scipinia Stål 1861. Scipinia rapax Miller 1941. https://eol.org/pages/9003840 </ref>).<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

AppearanceEdit

Portia are relatively small spiders. For example, adult females of Portia africana are Template:Convert in body length and adult males are Template:Convert long.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

IntelligenceEdit

Portia often hunt in ways that seem intelligent.<ref name="HarlandJackson2000EightLeggedCats">Template:Cite journal</ref> All members of Portia have instinctive hunting tactics for their most common prey, but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations, and then remember the new approach.<ref name="HarlandJackson2000Cats" />

They exhibit spatial memory and object permanence,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and are capable of trying out a behavior to obtain feedback regarding success or failure, and they can plan ahead (as it seems from their detouring behavior).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Portia species can make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey, even when the best detour takes a Portia out of visual contact with the prey,<ref name="HarlandJackson2000Cats" /> and sometimes the planned route leads to abseiling down a silk thread and biting the prey from behind. Such detours may take up to an hour,<ref name=WilcoxJackson2000Tricks>Template:Cite book</ref> and a Portia usually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route.Template:R

Nonetheless, they seem to be relatively slow thinkers, as is to be expected since they solve tactical problems by using brains vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators.<ref name="HarlandJackson2000EightLeggedCats" /> Portia has a brain significantly smaller than the size of the head of a pin,<ref>Complex Worlds from Simpler Nervous Systems. MIT Press, 2004. Template:ISBN | p.5</ref> and it likely has less than 100,000 neurons<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> (for comparison, a mouse brain has about 70 million neurons<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and a human brain has 86 billion<ref>Template:Cite journal)</ref>).

Portia can distinguish their own draglines from conspecifics', recognizing self from others, and also discriminate between known and unknown spiders.<ref name="BeyondBrain">Template:Cite book</ref>

Hunting techniquesEdit

Their favorite prey appears to be web-building spiders between 10% and 200% of their own size. Many species of Portia have protrusions of clusters of hairs on their cephalothorax, legs, and abdomen that when combined allow the spider to look like leaf detritus caught in a web, and this is often enough to fool web-building spiders, which have poor eyesight.<ref name="HarlandJackson2000EightLeggedCats"/> One of the most famous examples of these protrusions is the fringed jumping spider, Portia fimbriata, which has many of these protrusions, the most pronounced of which being the two tufts above its eyes <ref>https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1982.tb03504.x</ref>

When stalking web-building spiders, Portia try to make different patterns of vibrations in the web that aggressively mimic the struggle of a trapped insect or the courtship signals of a male spider, repeating any pattern that induces the intended prey to move towards the Portia.<ref name="WilcoxJackson2004JumpingSpiderTricksters" /> Portia fimbriata has been observed to perform vibratory behavior for three days until the victim decided to investigate.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They time invasions of webs to coincide with light breezes that blur the vibrations that their approach causes in the target's web, and they back off if the intended victim responds belligerently. Other jumping spiders take detours, but Portia is unusual in its readiness to use long detours that break visual contact.<ref name="WilcoxJackson2004JumpingSpiderTricksters" />

File:Portia.fimbriata.female.in.its.web.-.tanikawa.jpg

Female P. fimbriata in a web

Laboratory studies show that Portia learns very quickly how to overcome web-building spiders that neither it nor its ancestors would have met in the wild. PortiaTemplate:'s accurate visual recognition of potential prey is an important part of its hunting tactics. For example, in one part of the Philippines, local Portia spiders attack from the rear against the very dangerous spitting spiders, which themselves hunt jumping spiders. This appears to be an instinctive behavior, as laboratory-reared Portia of this species do this the first time they encounter a spitting spider. On the other hand, they will use a head-on approach against spitting spiders that are carrying eggs. However, experiments that pitted Portia against "convincing" artificial spiders with arbitrary but consistent behavior patterns showed that PortiaTemplate:'s instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly.<ref name="WilcoxJackson2004JumpingSpiderTricksters">Template:Cite book</ref>

Against other jumping spiders, which also have excellent vision, Portia may mimic fragments of leaf litter detritus. When close to biting range, Portia use different combat tactics against different prey spiders. On the other hand, when attacking unarmed prey, such as flies, they simply stalk and rush,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and they also capture prey by means of sticky webs.<ref name="WilcoxJackson2004JumpingSpiderTricksters" />

Portia can also rely on movement cues to locate prey. In this specific strategy, when potential prey knows it's been seen and stands still to avoid detection, undirected leaps occur in the vicinity of the prey. As a result, the prey will then react to this visual cue, believing itself to have been seen, providing motion that allows Portia to see and attack it.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Portia may also scavenge corpses of dead arthropods they found,<ref name="New Zealand Journal of Zoology">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and consume nectar.<ref>http://galliform.bhs.mq.edu.au/~ximena/Jackson%20et%20al%202001.pdf Template:Dead link</ref>

Social behaviorEdit

Members of the species Portia africana were observed living together and sharing prey.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

If a mature Portia male meets a sub-mature female, he will try to cohabitate with her.Template:R

P. labiata females can discriminate between the draglines of familiar and unfamiliar individuals of the same species<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> and between their own draglines and those of conspecifics.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The ability to recognize individuals is a necessary prerequisite for social behavior.<ref>Jerome Casas. Spider Physiology and: Behaviour. 2011. p.56 Template:ISBN</ref>

VisionEdit

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File:Jumping spider vision David Hill.svg

Diagram of the visual fields of the spider as viewed from above

Portia species have complex eyes that support exceptional spatial acuity.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> They have eight eyes. Three pairs of eyes positioned along the sides of the cephalothorax (called the secondary eyes) have a combined field-of-view of almost 360° and serve primarily as movement detectors. A pair of forward-facing anterior median eyes (called the principal eyes) are adapted for colour vision and high spatial acuity.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately Template:Convert to infinity,<ref name="Forster1977SaltHunting">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=ForsterMurphy1986SchulEcoBeh>Template:Cite journal</ref> and in practice can see up to about Template:Convert.Template:R Like all jumping spiders, its main eyes can take in only a small visual field at one time,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to Template:Convert wide at Template:Convert away, or up to Template:Convert wide at Template:Convert away.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Jumping spiders' main eyes can see from red to ultraviolet.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The secondary eyes have low spatial resolving power, but a wide field of view.<ref name="Shepeleva">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The inter-receptor angles of PortiaTemplate:'s eyes may be as small as 2.4 minutes of arc, which is only six times worse than in humans, and is six times better than in the most acute insect eye.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It is also clearer in daylight than a cat's vision.<ref name=HarlandJackson2000Cats />

P. africana relies on visual features of general morphology and colour (or relative brightness) when identifying prey types.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">Template:Cite journal</ref> P. schultziTemplate:'s hunting is stimulated only by vision, and prey close by but hidden causes no response.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> P. fimbriata use visual cues to distinguish members of the same species from other salticids.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Cross and Jackson (2014) suggest that P. africana is capable of mentally rotating visual objects held in its working memory.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>

However, a Portia takes a relatively long time to see objects, possibly because getting a good image out of such small eyes is a complex process and requires a lot of scanning.Template:Ref label This makes a Portia vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds, frogs and mantises, which a Portia often cannot identify because of the predator's size.<ref name="HarlandJackson2000Cats" />

MovementEdit

File:Portia fimbriata (15857541765).jpg

Portia fimbriata photographed during movement

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When not hunting for prey or a mate, Portia species adopt a special posture, called the "cryptic rest posture", pulling their legs in close to the body and their palps back beside the chelicerae ("jaws"), which obscures the outlines of these appendages. When walking, most Portia species have a slow, "choppy" gait that preserves their concealment: pausing often and at irregular intervals; waving their legs continuously and their palps jerkily up and down; moving each appendage out of time with the others;<ref name=HarlandJackson2000Cues>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=HarlandJackson2004Umwelt>Template:Cite book</ref> and continuously varying the speed and timing.<ref name=WilcoxJackson1998Cogn>Template:Cite book</ref>

When disturbed, some Portia species are known to leap upwards about Template:Convert often from the cryptic rest pose, and often over a wide trajectory. Usually the spider then either freezes or runs about Template:Convert and then freezes.<ref name=JacksonHallas1986Comp>Template:Cite journal</ref>

ReproductionEdit

{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Ambox }} }} Portia exhibits a mating behavior and strategy different from that of other jumping spiders. In most jumping spiders, males mount females to mate. The Portia male shows off his legs and extends them stiffly and shakes them to attract the female.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The female then drums on the web. After the male mounts her, the female drops a dragline and they mate in mid-air. Mating with Portia spiders can occur off or on the web. The spider also practices cannibalism before and after copulation. The female usually twists and lunges at the mounted male. (P. fimbriata, however, is an exception; it does not usually exhibit such behavior.) If the male is killed before completing copulation, the male sperm is removed and the male is then eaten. If the male finishes mating before being killed, the sperm is kept for fertilization and the male is eaten. A majority of males are killed during sexual encounters.

HealthEdit

Portia species have a life span of about 1.5 years.<ref>S.E.A. Hallas, The life cycle of three species of Portia (Salticidae, Spartaeinae). Ir.canterbury.ac.nz, 1987. p. 69</ref>

P. fimbriata can regenerate a lost limb about 7 days after moulting.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

PortiaTemplate:'s palps and legs break off very easily, which may be a defense mechanism, and Portias are often seen with missing legs or palps.<ref name="New Zealand Journal of Zoology"/>

SpeciesEdit

Template:As of it contains 21 species, found in Africa, Asia, and Australia:<ref name=WSC_g2903 />

Portia africana (Simon, 1886) – West, Central Africa, Ethiopia
Portia albimana (Simon, 1900) – India to Vietnam
Portia assamensis Wanless, 1978 – India to Malaysia
Portia bawang (Xu, Peng & Li, 2021) – China (Hainan)
Portia crassipalpis (Peckham & Peckham, 1907) – Singapore, Indonesia (Borneo)
Portia erlangping (Xu, Peng & Li, 2021) – China
Portia fajing (Xu, Peng & Li, 2021) – China
Portia fimbriata (Doleschall, 1859) (type) – Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Taiwan to Australia
Portia heteroidea Xie & Yin, 1991 – China
Portia hoggi Zabka, 1985 – Vietnam
Portia jianfeng Song & Zhu, 1998 – China
Portia labiata (Thorell, 1887) – Sri Lanka to China, Vietnam, Philippines, India
Portia orientalis Murphy & Murphy, 1983 – China (Hong Kong)
Portia quei Zabka, 1985 – China, Vietnam
Portia schultzi Karsch, 1878 – Central, East, Southern Africa, Mayotte, Madagascar
Portia songi Tang & Yang, 1997 – China
Portia strandi Caporiacco, 1941 – Ethiopia
Portia taiwanica Zhang & Li, 2005 – Taiwan
Portia wui Peng & Li, 2002 – China
Portia xishan (Xu, Peng & Li, 2021) – China
Portia zhaoi Peng, Li & Chen, 2003 – China

In popular literatureEdit

Portia jumping spiders as the dominant species evolving on a terraformed planet feature prominently in the science fiction novel Children of Time by the writer Adrian Tchaikovsky.