Offices in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Template:Short description Template:Morefootnotes Template:Use dmy dates This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a confederative mixed monarchy of the period 1569–1795, comprising the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their fiefs. The Commonwealth was governed by the Parliament (Sejm) consisting of the King, the King-appointed Senate (Voivodes, Castellans, Ministers, Bishops) and the rest of hereditary nobility either in person or through the Sejm proper (consisting of deputies representing their lands). The nobility's constitutional domination of the state made the King very weak and the commoners (burgesses and peasants) almost entirely unrepresented in the Commonwealth's political system.

Central offices

State offices

The division between public and court offices in the realities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is unclear, as all central offices originated from court positions. Some of them gained full autonomy, while others continued to perform service functions for the ruler.Template:Sfn The state and court hierarchies overlapped, and the officials' competencies were not clearly defined.Template:Sfn After 1565, the principle of "incompatibilitas" ("incompatibility") forbade Voivodes and Castellans to hold a second title as a Minister, except for the post of Hetman.

The system of offices in the Commonwealth was the result of equalizing the administrative hierarchies of both constituent parts of the state: the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Lithuania had its own separate court tradition, but after drawing closer to Poland at the end of the 14th century, there was a trend of copying Polish models and creating offices analogous to those existing in Poland.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn This process culminated in the acts of the Union of Lublin, but it continued in practice until the 18th century as part of the so-called coequation of laws.Template:Sfn However, the direction of influence was sometimes reversed, such as in the case of the office of the court huntsman, which appeared in Poland later than in Lithuania.Template:Sfn

Essentially, almost every central office was dual, one for Poland and the other for Lithuania. This was reflected in the title, to which an appropriate adjective was added: Crown or Lithuanian. Thus, in the Commonwealth, there were two Grand Marshals: the Crown Grand Marshal and the Lithuanian Grand Marshal.Template:Sfn

State offices
English name	Polish name	In Poland since	In Lithuania since	Function	Notes
Ministers (senatorial)
Grand Marshal	Marszałek wielki	1355Template:Sfn	c. 1407Template:Sfn	Taking care of the king's security and the peace and quiet in his place of residence (marshal court).Template:Sfn Being master of royal ceremonies, managing the court and access to the sovereign.Template:Sfn Organising and presiding over the proceedings of the senate, security of the sessions of the parliament (marshal's articles), organising the election of the sovereign.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Court Marshal	Marszałek nadworny	1409Template:Sfn	c. 1494Template:Sfn	Aide and alternate to the Grand Marshal, he acted independently only in his absence.Template:Sfn	Also a court office. In Lithuania, there was a separate office of Court (Hospodar) Marshal in the 15th-16th century, which over time lost its importance and became a land office.Template:Sfn
Grand Chancellor	Kanclerz wielki	10-11th c.Template:Sfn	[[Grand Chancellor of Lithuania|1441Template:Sfn]][./Offices_in_the_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGóralski198886-15 [15]]	Heading the greater chancellery. Directing the external policy of the state.Template:Sfn Guarding the observance of rights.Template:Sfn Announcement of new resolutions and laws.Template:Sfn Presiding over the assessor court.Template:Sfn	In the Crown, the office was alternately held by a lay person and a cleric.Template:Sfn
Vice-chancellor	Podkanclerzy	1189Template:Sfn	1566Template:Sfn	Aide and alternate to the Grand Chancellor, headed the lesser chancellery.Template:Sfn
Treasurer	Podskarbi	13th c.Template:Sfn	1429Template:Sfn	Managing the state's finances, issuing money, guarding the royal crown (until the 17th century).Template:Sfn	In Lithuania, held in conjunction with the office of Grand Scribe.Template:Sfn
Ministers (non-senatorial)
Court Treasurer	Podskarbi nadworny	c. 1454Template:Sfn	c. 1476Template:Sfn	Aide and alternate to the Treasurer.Template:Sfn Its sole function was to manage the king's property and income.Template:Sfn	Also a court office. Since 1775 senatorial.Template:Sfn
Grand Hetman	Hetman wielki	circa 1485Template:Sfn	circa 1499Template:Sfn	Command of the enlisted army, administration of army finances, judicial powers over the army. Hetman issued administrative and judicial regulations for the army (Hetman's Articles). Limited right to conduct foreign policy.Template:Sfn	Appointed only during the Sejm.Template:Sfn Since 1768 senatorial.Template:Sfn In 1717 the power of the hetmans was limited.Template:Sfn Also a military office.
Field Hetman	Hetman polny	1492Template:Sfn	circa 1520Template:Sfn	Aide and alternate to the Grand Hetman. Originally in Poland the commander of the Obrona potoczna, until the early 17th century appointed on an ad hoc basis.Template:Sfn
Other non-senatorial state offices
Grand Secretary	Sekretarz wielki	1504Template:Sfn	1670Template:Sfn	Chancellor-like functions, without the right to sign and seal letters. In addition, sitting on the assessor court.Template:Sfn	An office held by a clergyman, the separate office of lay Grand Secretary was created in 1764.Template:Sfn
–	Referendarz	c. 1510Template:Sfn	c. 1539Template:Sfn	Receiving requests and complaints from private individuals and referring them to the King and Chancellors. Sitting in assessor, report and Sejm's courts.Template:Sfn	Two, a layman and a clergyman.Template:Sfn
Instigator	Instygator	1586Template:Sfn	1586Template:Sfn	Public prosecutorTemplate:Sfn	Two, four since 1775.Template:Sfn
Vice-instigator	Wiceinstygator		c. 1615Template:Sfn	Alternate to the Instigators.Template:Sfn	Abolished in 1775.Template:Sfn
Grand Scribe	Pisarz wielki	1504Template:Sfn	1504Template:Sfn	Preparation of resolutions and documents. Sitting in assessor court, drafting sentences therein.Template:Sfn	One in the Crown, four in Lithuania, since 1764 four each.Template:Sfn
–	Kustosz koronny/Skarbny	before 16th c.	1452Template:Sfn	The Crown Custodian guarded the royal jewels at Krakow Castle, the Skarbny guarded the treasury at Vilnius Castle.Template:Sfn	In Poland, it rose to prominence after the court was moved to Warsaw.Template:Sfn

Both the Chancellor and the Sub-Chancellor stood at the head of the chancelleries (‘greater’ and ‘lesser’), which were headed by Regents.Template:Sfn Each chancellery employed a number of professionals: secretaries, scribes and clerks. Outside the chancellery were the Metricants, in charge of keeping the Metrics, i.e. the books in which all the documents arriving and departing from each chancellery were entered.Template:Sfn There were four chancelleries, four Metricants and two Metrics (Crown and Lithuanian) in the whole of the Commonwealth.Template:Sfn The Treasurers were also supported by a number of professional officials, the most important of whom were Treasury Scribes (two in the Crown, three in Lithuania).Template:Sfn He was assisted in matters of coinage issuance by a Mincer. In addition, a number of other functionaries: dispensers, superintendents, tax collectors, customs officers and toll collectors.Template:Sfn

Court offices

Originally, all central offices were simultaneously court offices. However, in the Kingdom of Poland, the concept of the Crown, representing the state itself, was distinguished relatively early from the person of the mortal monarch. Consequently, some offices lost their direct association with the monarch and his court, becoming state offices primarily responsible for state administration. This division was never complete, but there was a group of offices whose roles were essentially limited to serving the court and the monarch.Template:Sfn Among them, we distinguish between offices of the court (Template:Langx) and the court offices (Template:Langx). The court offices attended to the king's service, while the offices of the court managed and administered the court as an institution. The court offices were further divided into the offices of the royal table and the representatives of royal majesty.Template:Sfn

Most of these offices were of a purely honorary nature, their holders did not perform the functions associated with them, or if they did, they did so very rarely, mainly during rare grand royal ceremonies (coronations, weddings, homages etc.). Apart from the aforementioned offices, the court included a significantly larger group of people, both honorary courtiers and servants.Template:Sfn

Court offices
English name	Polish name	Date of creation		Function	Notes
		Poland	Lithuania
Court offices of the royal table
Kitchen-master	Kuchmistrz	c. 1352Template:Sfn	c. 1409Template:Sfn	Managing the royal kitchen.Template:Sfn
Stolnik	Stolnik	c. 1450Template:Sfn	c. 1501Template:Sfn	Setting the royal table, directing the serving of food.Template:Sfn	Disappeared in Poland in 1505, reappeared in 1633.Template:Sfn
Vice-cupbearer	Podczaszy	c. 1381Template:Sfn	c. 1410Template:Sfn	Serving liquor to the king.Template:Sfn	Initially subordinate to the Cup-bearer, later equal in rank, higher in hierarchyTemplate:Sfn
Carver	Krajczy	c. 1412Template:Sfn	c. 1446Template:Sfn	Cutting and serving food to the king.Template:Sfn
Podstoli	Podstoli	c. 1442Template:Sfn	c. 1470Template:Sfn	Carrying ceremonial staff in front of the Stolnik.Template:Sfn
Cupbearer	Cześnik	13th c.Template:Sfn	1409Template:Sfn	Pouring liquor into goblets.Template:Sfn
Court offices of the royal majesty
Grand Ensign	Chorąży wielki	before 13th c.	1499	Carrying the royal banner during the ceremoniesTemplate:Sfn
Court Ensign	Chorąży nadworny	1646Template:Sfn	1501Template:Sfn	Alternate to the
Swordbearer	Miecznik	c. 1327Template:Sfn	c. 1496Template:Sfn	Carrying the royal sword during the ceremoniesTemplate:Sfn
Equerry	Koniuszy	c. 1507Template:Sfn	c. 1510Template:Sfn	Administration of the royal stablesTemplate:Sfn	In Lithuania initially, his role was fulfilled by Koniuszy of Vilnius.Template:Sfn State office since the 17th centuryTemplate:Sfn
Vice-equerry	Podkoniuszy	17th c.Template:Sfn	c. 1617Template:Sfn
Grand Huntmaster	Łowczy wielki	c. 1576Template:Sfn		Administration of the royal forests and organization of huntsTemplate:Sfn	Honorary title since the 16th c.
Court Huntmaster	Łowczy nadworny	17th c.	c. 1596Template:Sfn
	Wojski		c. 1733Template:Sfn		Appeared in the 18th century in Lithuania as a dignitary.Template:Sfn
Offices of the court
	Podkomorzy	c. 1408Template:Sfn	c. 1428Template:Sfn	Actual management of the court, above all in the absence of the court marshal. Constantly stayed at the King's side.Template:Sfn
	Oboźny	c. 1511Template:Sfn		Management of royal camp during the warfare.Template:Sfn	Different than the military office of the same name.
	Woźniczy			Management of royal carriages.
	Piwniczy	–	c. 1526Template:Sfn	Management of the ruler's cellars.Template:Sfn
	Spiżarny	–	c. 1526Template:Sfn	Management of the ruler's pantry.Template:Sfn	Disappeared in early 17th c.

Military offices

The highest military officials were the Hetmans, they could not be removed. Until the beginning of the 18th century, hetmans were not paid for their services. With the emergence of a standing army in the Crown in the early 16th century and the office of Hetman, a staff of military officials formed around him to assist him in his tasks. The most important among them was the Field Scribe, closely followed by the Grand Warden.Template:Sfn Over time, the offices began to lose their professional character and became purely dignitaries, the earliest of which was the office of the Grand Oboźny, whose tasks were actually carried out by the Field Oboźny.Template:Sfn Other offices were still truly military in the 17th century, only becoming solely dignitaries in the 18th century.Template:Sfn The following list covers only military offices, apart from these there were a number of other posts which were not dignitaries and were usually filled by professionals, there was also a separate cadre of officers.Template:Sfn

Military offices
English name	Polish name	Date of creation		Function	Notes
		Poland	Lithuania
Grand Warden	Strażnik wielki	c. 1526Template:Sfn	1635Template:Sfn	Insuring the army on the march, commanding the vanguard when the army was commanded by the king.Template:Sfn	In Poland originally with the title of Field Warden, from the 17th century of Grand Warden.Template:Sfn
Field Warden	Strażnik polny	17th c.	c. 1624Template:Sfn	Vigilance over the security of the country's eastern borders.Template:Sfn	In Poland, appointed by the Hetman.
	Pisarz polny	c. 1509Template:Sfn		Conducting military administration, surveying and recording troops, inspecting strongholds in Podolia and Ukraine.Template:Sfn
	Oboźny wielki			Establishment and administration of a military camp.Template:Sfn
	Oboźny polny
	Generał artylerii			Reporting to the hetman, he was in charge of the administration of the artillery, armouries, arsenals and gun foundries.Template:Sfn
	Gernerał inspektor			Inspection of all regiments.Template:Sfn	Two, appointed by the Hetman.Template:Sfn

Provincial offices

Voivodes and castellans

Of secular Senators, the foremost was the Castellan (Kasztelan) of Kraków. Other Castellans, however, were considered to be lesser dignitaries than the Voivodes.

The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their Voivodeships to the Senat. They were the leaders of the Land Parliaments (Sejmiki Wojewódzkie, Voivodeship Sejmiks). They were in charge of assembling local nobility's military forces in the event of a pospolite ruszenie (levée en masse). Each chose a Deputy Voivode, who was responsible for setting local prices and measures. Voivodes were chosen by the King, except for those of Połock Voivode and Vilnius Voivode, who were elected by (and from) the local nobility (but still had to be appointed by the King).

Except for the Castellan of Kraków Land (which has its seat in a privileged city, as the Commonwealth's capital until 1596), Castellans were often considered subordinate to Voivodes. A Castellan was in charge of part of a Voivodeship (till the 15th century called a Castellany, and thereafter divided into provinces for Major Castellans and powiats for Minor Castellans).

Land offices

A 1611 Constitution (amended 1633 and 1635) prescribed many officials. Exceptions to the rule, however, were the rule; Sejm rules were treated as mere recommendations. Thus Bełz Voivodeship had only 4 of the 15 prescribed dignitaries; most northern voivodeships had about 5; and in Wołyń and Bracław Voivodeships the hierarchical order was almost reversed. Each province or district had its own set of officials—a list of provinces may be found in the article on provinces and geography of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

District officials were appointed by the King, with a few exceptions (local parliaments—sejmiki—chose Chamberlains, District Judges, Deputy District Judges, District Clerks, and in Lithuania also Standard-bearers and District Marshals). Chamberlains, except for the name, had nothing in common with the Court officials of the same name. They administered a court of law (the Chamberlain's Court) which had jurisdiction over property disputes. The District Judge headed the District Court, which had jurisdiction over civil and some criminal matters involving local nobility.

The Starosta generalny ("General Starosta") was the official in charge of a specific territory. The Starosta grodowy ("City Starosta") was in charge of cities, while the Starosta niegrodowy ("Non-City Starosta") was responsible for administration of the Crown lands. These were to be kept in good financial and military order. While in time these administrative responsibilities became smaller (as Kings gave away more and more land), the Starosta remained in charge of the City Courts (sądy grodzkie), which dealt with most criminal matters and had jurisdiction over all local and visiting nobility. They dealt with the most severe cases (killings, rapes, robberies) and were quite harsh (highway robbery was punishable with death), which generally made Poland a safer country than its neighbors. The Starostas also held the "power of the sword", which meant that they enforced the verdicts of all other courts. Non-City Starostas had no juridical powers.

Standard-bearers carried the local banner during Royal ceremonies, and in war when local troops served in the Army. During war, Wojskis maintained order and security in their territories. In Lithuania, the responsibilities of Ciwuns were similar to those of non-city starostas (elders). District marshals presided over local parliaments (in the "Crown", District Marshals were chosen only for the duration of the parliament session, and so were much less powerful than those of Lithuania, who were chosen for life).

Crown

• Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
• Starosta grodowy – Mayor
• Chorąży – Standard-bearer
• Sędzia ziemski – District Judge
• Stolnik – Pantler
• Podczaszy – Royal Cupbearer
• Podsędek – Deputy District Judge
• Podstoli – Steward
• Cześnik – Cupbearer
• Łowczy – Master of the Hunt
• Wojski większy – Major Wojski
• Pisarz ziemski – District Clerk
• Miecznik – Sword-bearer
• Wojski mniejszy – Minor Wojski
• Skarbnik – Treasurer

Lithuania

• Marszałek ziemski – District Marshal
• Ciwun – Bailiff
• Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
• Starosta grodzki – Mayor
• Chorąży – Standard-bearer
• Sędzia ziemski – District judge
• Wojski większy – Major Wojski
• Stolnik – Pantler
• Podstoli – Steward
• Pisarz ziemski – District Clerk
• Podwojewódzki, Podstarosta – Deputy Voivod, Deputy Starosta
• Sędzia grodzki – City Judge
• Pisarz grodzki – City Clerk
• Podczaszy – Royal Cupbearer
• Cześnik – Cupbearer
• Horodniczy – Castellan
• Skarbnik – Treasurer
• Łowczy – Master of the Hunt
• Miecznik – Sword-bearer
• Koniuszy – Equerry
• Oboźny – Quartermaster
• Strażnik – Guard
• Krajczy – Carver
• Leśniczy – Forester
• Mostowniczy – Custodian of Bridges
• Budowniczy – Architect

Prussia

• Podkomorzy – Chamberlain
• Chorąży – Standard-bearer
• Sędzia – Judge
• Ławnik – Alderman
• Pisarz – Clerk
• Podwojewoda – Deputy Voivod (Deputy Governor)

Castle offices

The most important official was the Starosta. He was supported by a Borough Substarosta (podstarości grodowy), Burgrave (Burgrabia), Notary (Notariusz) and Scriptor (Pisarz). The Borough Substarosta assisted the Starosta and in his absence acted in his name with all his powers. Lower city officials were the Borough Regent (rejent grodzki), Borough Notary (notariusz grodzki), Borough Scriptor (pisarz grodzki) and common clerks ("subclerks" — podpiskowie).

In the eastern territories bordering on Russia, from 1667, a "Border Judge" cooperated with Russian judges in cases involving parties from the two countries; his rulings were final.

Judges were chosen from among the local hereditary nobles and had little formal training; therefore the quality of the courts varied from judge to judge, and levels of corruption were high. Attorneys, on the other hand, were required to have professional training. Sometimes a court included an asesor, who assisted the judge and collected fines and fees. Prosecutors were extremely rare. Instygators maintained order and security on court grounds, and a court runner (woźny) delivered summons.

List of borough and judicial offices

• Podstarosta grodowy – Borough Substarost
• Burgrabia – Burgrave
• Notariusz – Notary
• Rejent grodzki – Borough Regent
• Sędzia grodzki – Borough Judge
• Podsędek grodzki – Borough Subjudge
• Pisarz grodzki – Borough Clerk

In 1717 the "Numb Diet" barred non-Roman Catholics from being elected Envoys (to the Parliament), and to any other land offices if there was another Roman Catholic contender. The rights of the "Dissidents", as they were called, were reinstated in 1768, and in 1772 their representation in the Diet was limited to a statutory of two members. These rules were finally abolished in 1792 by the 3rd May Constitution.

Town and village offices

These offices were very stable, having evolved about the 13th century and lasting almost unchanged to the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The administrative system had come from Germany together with Magdeburg law.

Every city (without exception) had a Council and a Bench, the Council being the administrative branch and the Bench the judicial branch. A new Council was chosen by the old one whose term had expired. The Council was responsible for administration, law, privileges, security, finances, guild oversight, and the like. The Council chose the Mayor, and its members' decision was final—even the Starosta or Voivode could only listen to the Mayor's swearing-in and could not refuse to give him his seal. The Council met daily in the larger cities, less often in smaller ones.

The Mayor headed the Council and controlled the executive branch. He was responsible for conciliation, the care of the poor, and maintaining order by suppressing alcohol abuse and games of chance. Second to the Mayor was the Council Clerk, who ran the City Chancellery. The City Clerk (Syndyk Miejski) collected city taxes and supervised the tax collectors. Security and order in the city were the responsibility of the Hutman. He also supervised the city jail and the keyman who unlocked and locked the city gates at dawn and dusk.

The Lonar was the city treasurer, who oversaw its finances. He supervised the officials who controlled marketplace scales to ensure fair trade. Large cities also had scores of less common officials, such as Pipemasters, responsible for pipes and wells; Fire Chiefs; and City Translators, who assisted foreigners and looked out for spies.

The Bench was chaired by a wójt. He and the other Bench members were chosen by the Council for a year's term from among lesser city officials (writers, clerks, etc.).

City Chief Executioners executed not only criminals sentenced by the Bench, but often criminals sentenced by other non-military courts in Poland. They were well paid, sometimes functioned as physicians, but were also often considered social outcasts and lived outside the city walls.

A village mayor was called the sołtys and was the administrative, executive and judicial chief for the village, responsible only to the village's owner.

List of town and village offices

• Burmistrz – City Mayor;
• Wójt – Advocate-Mayor;
• Pisarz rady – Council Clerk;
• Syndyk miejski – City Clerk;
• Hutman – Constable;
• Lonar – City Treasurer.

Other

• Starosta grodowy, Starosta sądowy – City Starosta, Judicial Starosta;
• Starosta generalny wielkopolski – General Starosta of Wielkopolska;
• Starosta generalny małopolski – General Starosta of Małopolska;
• Burgrabia zamku krakowskiego – Burgrave of Kraków Castle;
• Surrogat – Surrogate.

Fictional offices

Fictional or fictitious offices were a specific kind of offices, as they referred to the territories which Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost in the second half of the 17th century either to the Swedish Empire or the Tsardom of Russia. Following the Treaty of Oliva (1660), the Commonwealth officially lost Wenden Voivodeship, Parnawa Voivodeship, and Dorpat Voivodeship. Furthermore, as a result of the Truce of Andrusovo (1667), Poland-Lithuania lost Smolensk Voivodeship and Czernihow Voivodeship.

Despite the fact that these territories did not belong to the Commonwealth any longer, and were under foreign rule, their administration existed for further 100 years, until the Partitions of Poland, with a complex hierarchy of all kinds of regional offices. The existence of fictional titles was the result of the special role of offices in the minds of the Polish–Lithuanian nobility: even though these offices were only honorary, without any material privileges and salaries, they determined social status of their bearers. Furthermore, having a title, albeit fictional, emphasized the position of an individual nobleman as a keen citizen and co-creator of the Commonwealth.

After Czernihow Voivodeship was detached from Poland in 1667, sejmiks of the former province took place at Wlodzimierz Wolynski, some 500 kilometers west of Czernihow. Polish kings continued to present fictional titles of voivodes, senators, deputies, and starostas of Czernihow to their courtiers. In 1785, Stanisław August Poniatowski gave fictitious title of starosta of Nowogrod Siewierski to Tadeusz Czacki.

See also

• List of szlachta
• Hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
• Order of precedence in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
• Szlachta
• Table of Ranks

Bibliography

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