Shaivism

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Use Indian English {{#invoke:Infobox|infobox}}Template:Template other Template:Saivism Template:Hinduism small

Shaivism (Template:IPAc-en, Template:Langx, Template:Nowrap) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships ShivaTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn as the supreme being. It is the second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million Hindus,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=johnson400>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn found widely across South Asia (predominantly in Southern India), Sri Lanka, and Nepal.Template:Sfn<ref name="Keayxxvii">Keay, p.xxvii.</ref> The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Shaivites.

According to Chakravarti, Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Aryan religions and traditions, Vedic Rudra, and post-Vedic traditions, accommodating local traditions and Yoga, puja and bhakti.Template:Sfn According to Bisschop, early shaivism is rooted in the worship of vedic deity Rudra. The earliest evidence for sectarian Rudra-Shiva worship appears with the Pasupata (early CE),Template:Sfn possibly owing to the Hindu synthesis, when many local traditions were aligned with the Vedic-Brahmanical fold.Template:Sfn The Pāśupata movement rapidly expanded throughout North India, giving rise to different forms of Shaivism, which led to the emergence of various tantric traditions. Template:Sfn Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms.Template:Sfn It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Shaivism incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-orientated monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism.Template:Sfn<ref name="ganeshtagare">Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 16–19</ref>Template:Sfn Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman (Self) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.Template:Sfn It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and encourages one to discover and be one with Shiva within.Template:Sfn<ref name="ganeshtagare"/><ref name="Himalaya Academy">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

It has a vast literature,<ref>Tattwananda, p. 54.</ref> considering both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology.<ref name="davidsmith116"/><ref name=dhavamony>Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999), Hindu Spirituality, Gregorian University and Biblical Press, Template:ISBN, pages 31–34 with footnotes</ref><ref name="Mark Dyczkowski 1989 pages 43">Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 43–44</ref>

Etymology and nomenclature

Shiva (Template:IAST, Template:Langx) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.Template:Sfn<ref name="Macdonell, p. 314">Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> As a proper name, it means "The Auspicious One".<ref name="Macdonell, p. 314"/>

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.Template:Sfn The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.<ref name=mmwshiva>Monier Monier-Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology Template:Webarchive, Oxford University Press, pages 1074–1076</ref>Template:Sfn The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".<ref name=mmwshiva/>Template:Sfn

The Sanskrit word Template:IAST or Template:Transliteration means "relating to the god Shiva",Template:Sfn while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.Template:Sfn

Origins and history

File:Development of Shaivism.svg

The development of various schools of Shaivism from early worship of Rudra.<ref>Gavin Flood (1997), An Introduction to Hinduism, p.152</ref>

The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars. According to Chakravarti, it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture.Template:Sfn Gavin flood associates it with the Brahmanization of local traditions.Template:Sfn According to Bisschop, early shaivism is rooted in the worship of vedic deity Rudra.Template:Sfn

Indus Valley Civilisation

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File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg

The "Pashupati" seal from the Indus Valley civilisation.

Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley Civilisation, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE.<ref>For dating as fl. 2300–2000 BCE, decline by 1800 BCE, and extinction by 1500 BCE see: Flood (1996), p. 24.</ref>Template:Sfn Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which early scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals, and with horns.<ref>For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref> This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit Template:IAST)<ref name="Michaels p. 312">For translation of Template:IAST as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal has been interpreted by these scholars as a prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the seal if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings".<ref>Mark Singleton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 25–34</ref>Template:Sfn Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate.Template:Sfn<ref>Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 240–250</ref>

Vedic elements

The Rigveda (~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention of Rudra ("Roarer") in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114.Template:Sfn Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins.Template:Sfn The text also includes a Satarudriya, an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra, that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples of Hindus in contemporary times. Yet, the Vedic literature only presents scriptural theology, but does not attest to the existence of Shaivism.Template:Sfn

Emergence of Shaivism

File:Vima Kadphises Shiva coin.jpg

Kushan coin of Vima Kadphises (2nd century CE), with a possible Shiva, holding a trident, in ithyphallic stateTemplate:Refn and next to a bull, his mount, as in Shaivism.<ref name="sino-platonic.org">Loeschner, Hans (2012) The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Template:Webarchive, Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 227 (July 2012); page 11</ref><ref name="Bopearachchi, O. 2007">Bopearachchi, O. (2007). Some observations on the chronology of the early Kushans. Res Orientales, 17, 41–53</ref><ref>Perkins, J. (2007). Three-headed Śiva on the Reverse of Vima Kadphises's Copper Coinage. South Asian Studies, 23(1), 31–37</ref> The deity was described by the later Kushans in their coinage as "Oesho", a possibly kushan deity.<ref name="Bopearachchi, O. 2007"/>

According to Chakravarti, Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Aryan religions and traditions, Vedic Rudra, and post-Vedic traditions, accommodating phallic, bull and serpent cults, the Dravidian Father God and Mother Goddess concept, and Yoga, puja and bhakti.Template:Sfn

According to Gavin Flood, "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD."Template:Sfn Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical god,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their mythologies,Template:Sfn and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva-cult.Template:Sfn Shiva's growing prominence was facilitated by identification with a number of Vedic deities, such as Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, [[Prajapati|Template:IAST]], [[Vayu|Template:IAST]], among others.Template:Sfn The earliest evidence for sectarian Rudra-Shiva worship appears with the Pasupata (early CE).Template:Sfn The followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold, becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns.Template:Sfn

Patanjali's Template:IAST, dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions the term Shiva-bhagavata in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an ayah sulikah (iron spear, trident lance)<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> as an icon representing his god.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Shvetashvatara Upanishad mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram,<ref>[a] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 301–304;
[b] R G Bhandarkar (2001), Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 106–111</ref><ref>Robert Hume (1921), Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 400–406 with footnotes</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed.<ref>A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309–314; {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref><ref name="srinivasanch9">D Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, Template:ISBN, pages 96–97 and Chapter 9</ref> The dating of the Shvetashvatara is also in dispute, but it is likely a late Upanishad.<ref>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, Chapter 1</ref>

The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Other evidence that is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho. According to Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival of Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography; however, this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism.Template:Sfn The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest that Shaivism (particularly Pāśupata) was established in this region by the 5th century, during the late Guptas era. These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Puranic Shaivism

File:Shiva Parvati Ganesha.jpg

Shiva (middle) is the supreme being of Shaivism, accompanied by his son Ganesha (left) and consort Parvati (right). Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

During the Gupta Empire (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purāṇa literature developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta Traditions of Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The most important Shaiva Purāṇas of this period include the Shiva Purāṇa, the Skanda Purāṇa, and the Linga Purāṇa.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref>Bakker, Hans (2014). The World of the Skandapurāṇa, pp. 2-5. BRILL Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-27714-4.</ref>

Post-Gupta development

File:Shiva with Trisula Panjikent 7th–8th century CE Hermitage Museum.jpg

Shiva with Trisula, worshipped in Central Asia. Penjikent, Uzbekistan, 7th–8th century CE. Hermitage Museum.

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of Vaishnavism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> But following the Huna invasions, especially those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting.<ref name="HTB98"/> The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva.<ref name="HTB98"/> Vaishnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.<ref name="HTB98">Template:Cite book</ref>

In the early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian subcontinent, including in the Hindu Kush region such as Nuristan.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those at Badami cave temples, Aihole, Elephanta Caves, Ellora Caves (Kailasha, cave 16), Khajuraho, Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram.Template:Sfn

Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE, such as Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation,Template:Refn while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik.Template:Sfn

South India

Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnavism expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as the Mahabharata, Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.Template:Sfn

The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnavism. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as the Isvarasamhita, Padmasamhita, and Paramesvarasamhita.Template:Sfn

File:Mamallapuram, Shore Temple, India.jpg

The 7th to 8th-century Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It features thousands of Shaivism-related sculptures.<ref>Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram Template:Webarchive, UNESCO World Heritage Sites; Quote: "It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva."</ref>

Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India.<ref name=sanderson2014p1/> The region was also the source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or svayambhu).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Elgood2000p47">Template:Cite book</ref> Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Gudimallam is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="Elgood2000p47"/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), An Alternative Historiography for Hinduism, Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pages 17–26, Quote: "Numerous Sanskrit texts and ancient sculptures (such as the Gudimallam linga from the third century BCE) define (...)"</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Southeast Asia

File:A collage of Shaivism Shiva Siwa Hindu icons and temples in Southeast Asia.jpg

An image collage of 1st millennium CE Shaivism icons and temples from Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva in yoga pose, Nandi, Prambanan temple, Yoni-Linga and Hindu temple layout.

Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many cases.Template:Sfn For example, in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, a few caves include Shaivism ideas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Refn The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period, that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam,Template:Sfn and persists today in the province of Bali.<ref name=britbalinesepeople>Balinese people Template:Webarchive, Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)</ref>

The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century. Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.<ref name=rghose4>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 4–6, 14–16, 94–96, 160–161, 253</ref> In the centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.<ref name=rghose4/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Indonesia

In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya" into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.<ref name=boon>Template:Cite book</ref>

Beliefs and practices

Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-Puranic, who use the terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they use iconography such as the Linga, Nandi, Trishula (trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in temples to help focus their practices.<ref name="Michaels2004p215"/> Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it with abstract Sivata (feminine energy) or Sivatva (neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates the goddess (Shakti) and the god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus.<ref name="Michaels2004p215">Template:Cite book</ref>

Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism

Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik (esoteric, tantric).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.Template:Sfn

File:Female Ascetics (Yoginis) LACMA M.2011.156.4 (1 of 2).jpg

Two female Shaiva ascetics (18th century painting)

• Vedic-Puranik. The majority within Shaivism follow the Vedic-Puranik traditions. They revere the Vedas and the Puranas and hold beliefs that span from dualistic theism, such as Shiva Bhakti (devotionalism), to monistic non-theism dedicated to yoga and a meditative lifestyle. This sometimes involves renouncing household life for monastic pursuits of spirituality.Template:Sfn The Yoga practice is particularly pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism, with the practice refined into a methodology such as four-fold upaya: being pathless (anupaya, iccha-less, desire-less), being divine (sambhavopaya, jnana, knowledge-full), being energy (saktopaya, kriya, action-full) and being individual (anavopaya).Template:SfnTemplate:Refn
• Non-Puranik. These are esoteric, minority sub-traditions wherein devotees are initiated (Template:IAST) into a specific cult they prefer. Their goals vary, ranging from liberation in current life (mukti) to seeking pleasures in higher worlds (bhukti). Their means also vary, ranging from meditative atimarga or "outer higher path" versus those whose means are recitation-driven mantras. The atimarga sub-traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula. According to Sanderson, the PashupatasTemplate:Refn have the oldest heritage, likely from the 2nd century CE, as evidenced by ancient Hindu texts such as the Shanti Parva book of the Mahabharata epic.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The tantric sub-tradition in this category is traceable to post-8th to post-11th century depending on the region of Indian subcontinent, paralleling the development of Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this period.Template:Sfn Among these are the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta and Bhairava Shaivas (non-Saiddhantika), based on whether they recognize any value in Vedic orthopraxy.Template:Sfn These sub-traditions cherish secrecy, special symbolic formulae, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of siddhi (special powers). Some of these traditions also incorporate theistic ideas, elaborate geometric yantra with embedded spiritual meaning, mantras and rituals.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions

Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:

Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions

	Shaiva Traditions	Vaishnava Traditions	Shakta Traditions	Smarta Traditions	References
Scriptural authority	Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas	Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas	Vedas and Upanishads	Vedas and Upanishads	Template:Sfn<ref name="Dhavamony1999p33">Template:Cite book</ref>
Supreme deity	Shiva	Vishnu	Devi	None (Considers Parabrahman to be so)	<ref name="JanGondaVandS">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Creator	Shiva	Vishnu	Devi	Brahman	<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Avatar	Minor	Key concept	Significant	Minor	Template:Sfn<ref name=laiengavatar>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Dhavamony2002p63">Template:Cite book</ref>
Monastic life	Recommends	Accepts	Accepts	Recommends	Template:Sfn<ref>Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, page 332 with note 68</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Rituals, Bhakti	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> || Affirms || Affirms || Optional<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> ||<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism	Recommends,<ref name = anin/> Optional	Affirms	Optional	Recommends	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Free will, Maya, Karma	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/>
Metaphysics	Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Self)	Brahman (Vishnu), Atman	Brahman (Devi), Atman	Brahman, Atman	<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/>
Epistemology (Pramana)	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 4. Self-evident<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Comparison and analogy 4. Postulation, derivation 5. Negative/cognitive proof 6. Reliable testimony	<ref>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, page 238</ref>Template:Sfn<ref>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 245–248</ref>
Philosophy	Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita	Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita	Shakti-advaita	Advaita, qualified advaita	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Liberation (Soteriology)	Jivanmukta, Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>	Videhamukti, Yoga, champions householder life	Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga	Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga, champions monastic life	<ref name="Kim Skoog 1996 63–84, 236–239">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Texts

Template:Quote box Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises. These include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Agamas, and the Bhasya. According to Gavin Flood – a professor at Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology, in its diverse traditions.Template:Sfn Among the notable and influential commentaries by dvaita (dualistic) theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th century Bhojadeva.Template:Sfn The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita (nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,Template:Refn the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn

Vedas and Principal Upanishads

The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism, while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sub-traditions.<ref name=dhavamony/> The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.<ref name=dhavamony/> The Vedic literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, will be acceptable to the Shaivas.<ref name="dhavamony"/> According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas".<ref name=davidsmith116>David Smith (1996), The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, page 116</ref> This school's view can be summed as,

The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk. {{#if:Umapati|{{#if:|}}

— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries

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The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad|Template:IAST Upanishad]] (400–200 BCE)<ref name="Flood 1996 p. 86">For dating to 400–200 BCE see: Flood (1996), p. 86.</ref> is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.Template:Refn

Shaiva minor Upanishads

Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva Upanishads.<ref name=ayyangarminor2>Template:Cite book</ref> These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature.<ref name=ayyangarminor2/><ref>Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions, New York University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 60–88</ref> The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.<ref name=pdeussen247268>Template:Cite book</ref>

Shaivism Upanishads

Shaiva Upanishad	Composition date	Topics	Reference
Kaivalya Upanishad	1st millennium BCE	Shiva, Atman, Brahman, Sannyasa, Self-knowledge	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Chester G Starr (1991), A History of the Ancient World, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 168</ref><ref name=peterheehs85>Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 85–86</ref>
Atharvashiras Upanishad	1st millennium BCE	Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Ignatius Viyagappa (1980), G.W.F. Hegel's Concept of Indian Philosophy, Gregorian University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 24-25</ref><ref>H Glasenapp (1974), Die Philosophie der Inder, Kröner, Template:ISBN, pages 259–260</ref>
Atharvashikha Upanishad	1st millennium BCE	Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, meditation	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Brihajjabala Upanishad	Late medieval, post-12th century	Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads, Tripundra tilaka	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Kalagni Rudra Upanishad	Unknown	Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), Ritual Shaivism	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn
Dakshinamurti Upanishad	Unknown	Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, Atman, monism	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Sharabha Upanishad	Unknown	Shiva as Sharabha	citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Akshamalika Upanishad	Late medieval, post-12th century CE	Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, symbolism in Shaivism iconography	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Rudrahridaya Upanishad	Unknown	Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are inseparable, nondualism	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Bhasmajabala Upanishad	Late medieval, post-12th century	Shiva, sacred ash, body art, iconography, why rituals and Varanasi are important	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Rudrakshajabala Upanishad	After the 10th century	Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and mantra recitation	<ref name="ayyangarminor2"/>
Ganapati Upanishad	16th or 17th century	Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, Satcitananda	Template:Sfn
Pancabrahma Upanishad	About 7th century CE	Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism, So'ham, Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn
Jabali Upanishad	unknown	Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance of ash and body art	<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Shaiva Agamas

The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology.<ref name=juliuslipner27>Julius Lipner (2004), Hinduism: the way of the banyan, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 27–28</ref> These texts include Shaiva cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of practice.<ref name=Grimes>Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. Template:ISBN. pages 16–17 Template:Webarchive</ref><ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue, Rodopi, Template:ISBN, pages 54–56</ref> These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit<ref name=Grimes/> and in south Indian languages such as Tamil.<ref>Indira Peterson (1992), Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 11–18</ref>

The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism.<ref>DS Sharma (1990), The Philosophy of Sadhana, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 9–14</ref><ref name=richdavis167>Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press, Template:ISBN, page 167 note 21, Quote (page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important."</ref> In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts.<ref name="Mark Dyczkowski 1989 pages 43"/> The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.<ref name = anin>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 162–167</ref><ref>JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 252, 259</ref>

The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (Self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman) which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism.<ref name=ganeshtagare/> The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.<ref name=ganeshtagare/> Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God.<ref name="ganeshtagare"/> While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the Shaivas.<ref name=dhavamony/>

Traditions

File:Iraivan Temple.jpg

Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery(shaivaite) in the United States.

Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions. These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or practices of the two.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Sanderson presents the historic classification found in Indian texts,Template:Sfn namely Atimarga of the Shaiva monks and Mantramarga that was followed by both the renunciates (sannyasi) and householders (grihastha) in Shaivism.Template:Sfn Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on Shiva, but others such as the Devi (goddess) Shaktism.Template:Sfn

Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga

The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation) – or the end of all Dukkha – as the primary goal of spiritual pursuits.Template:Sfn It was the path for Shaiva ascetics, in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and pleasures in life.Template:Sfn The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic Rudra).<ref>Sanderson, Alexis; "Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions." In The World's Religions, edited by S. Sutherland, L. Houlden, P. Clarke and F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1988), pp. 665–666, context: pp. 660–704. Reprinted in The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, edited by F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1990), pp. 128–72.</ref>

Pashupata Atimargi

File:Mahakuta Lakulisha.jpg

Lakulisha at Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta, Karnataka (Chalukya, 7th century CE). His 5th–10th century ithyphallic statuesTemplate:Refn are also found in seated yogi position in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and elsewhere.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Pashupata: (IAST: Template:IAST) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It is a monist tradition, that considers Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is one of asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.<ref>Sanderson, Alexis; "Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions." In The World's Religions, edited by S. Sutherland, L. Houlden, P. Clarke and F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1988), pp. 660–704. Reprinted in The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, edited by F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1990), pp. 128–72.</ref> Pashupata theology, according to Shiva Sutras, aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.Template:Sfn

The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the beast,<ref name=lochtefeld505/> and the Atman (Self, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.Template:Sfn The tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive literature,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha) and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd century CE).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He is the purported author of the Pashupata-sutra, a foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include the bhasya (commentary) on Pashupata-sutra by Kaudinya, the Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā and Rāśikara-bhāshya.Template:Sfn The Pashupatha monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required renunciation from four Ashrama (stage) into the fifth stage of Siddha-Ashrama. The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his death.Template:Sfn

The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kashmir and Nepal. The community is found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>See Alexis Sanderson's Śaivism among the Khmers Part I, pp. 349—462 in the Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 90—91 (2003—2004).</ref> In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics became extinct.<ref name=lochtefeld505>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>For Pāśupata as an ascetic movement see: Michaels (2004), p. 62.</ref>

Lakula Atimargi

This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas. Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, for example, almost naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food.Template:Sfn The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognized no act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However, according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.Template:Sfn

Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their canons on theology, rituals and literature on pramanas (epistemology). However, their primary texts are believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.Template:Sfn

Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga

Template:Multiple image "Mantramārga" (Sanskrit: मंत्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both householders and monks.Template:Sfn It grew from the Atimarga tradition.Template:Sfn This tradition sought not just liberation from Dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (siddhi) and pleasures (bhoga), both in this life and next.Template:Sfn The siddhi were particularly the pursuit of Mantramarga monks, and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic techniques and mantras.Template:Sfn Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient than the date of their texts that have survived, according to Sanderson.Template:Sfn Mantramārga grew to become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia's Khmer Empire, Java, Bali and Cham.<ref>Sanderson, Alexis; the Saiva Age, page 44.</ref>Template:Sfn

The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2006. P.120">Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.120</ref> This literature was highly influential not just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.Template:Sfn Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=flood58>Template:Cite book</ref> Shaiva Siddhanta is a major sub-tradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history.<ref name=flood58/>

Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.<ref name=reynolds243>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Its central premise has been that the Atman (Self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found in Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools consider Maya as Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity.<ref name=reynolds243/>

Srikantha, influenced by Ramanuja, formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In this theology, Atman (Self) is not identical with Brahman, but shares with the Supreme all its qualities. Appayya Dikshita (1520–1592), an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the Karnataka region. His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam (Tiruvannamalai district).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>A Topographical List Of The Inscriptions Of The Madras Presindency (collected Till 1915) With Notes And References Volume I, V. Rangacharya, Madras Government Press, pages 47–48</ref>

Shaiva Siddhanta

File:Thirumoolar Nayanar.jpg

Tirumular, the great Tamil Śaivasiddhānta poet and mystic saint (siddha).

The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest sampradaya (tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th century.<ref name=flood58/><ref>Sanderson, Alexis; the Saiva Age, page 45.</ref> The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva,Template:Sfn uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called Tirumurai. A key philosophical text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-century Meykandar.<ref name=britshaivasiddhanta/> This theology presents three universal realities: the pashu (individual Self), the pati (lord, Shiva), and the pasha (Self's bondage) through ignorance, karma and maya. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual Self from bondage.<ref name=britshaivasiddhanta>Shaiva Siddhanta Template:Webarchive, Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)</ref>Template:Sfn

The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇakaṇṭha and his son Bhaṭṭa Rāmakaṇṭha (c. 950–1000).<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 210">Template:Harvnb</ref> However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.<ref name="Flood, Gavin 2006. P.34">Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. p. 34</ref> The philosophy of Shaiva Siddhanta, is particularly popular in south India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.<ref name=arulsamy>S. Arulsamy, Saivism – A Perspective of Grace, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, 1987, pp.1</ref>

The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.Template:Sfn The tradition includes both Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.Template:Sfn Unlike the experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat". Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,Template:Sfn worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn This tradition diversified in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Nayanars

File:Nayanars6.jpg

Nayanars Shaiva poet-saints are credited with Bhakti movement in Shaivism. It included three women saints, such as the 6th-century Karaikkal Ammaiyar.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in ancient Tamil Nadu with a focus on Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.<ref>For the emergence of the Nayanars by the 7th century and comparison with Vaisnava Alvars see: Flood (1996), 131.</ref> The devotional Tamil poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together known as Tirumurai, along with a Tamil Purana called the Periya Puranam. The first seven collections are known as the Tevaram and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the Vedas.<ref>For eleven collections, with the first seven (the Thevaram) regarded as Vedic, see: Tattwananda, p. 55.</ref> They were composed in the 7th century by Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar.<ref>For dating of Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar as 7th century see: Tattwananda, p. 55.</ref>

Tirumular (also spelled Template:IAST or Template:IAST), the author of the Tirumantiram (also spelled Tirumandiram) is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas.<ref>Tattwananda, p. 55.</ref> Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz.<ref>Winternitz, p. 588, note 1.</ref> The Tirumantiram is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.<ref>For the Tirumantiram as the tenth book of the Shaiva Siddhanta canon see Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. "Auspicious Fragments and Uncertain Wisdom", in: Harper and Brown, p. 63.</ref> The Tiruvacakam by Manikkavacagar is an important collection of hymns.<ref>Tattwananda, p. 56.</ref>

Tantra Diksha traditions

The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divinely revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru.<ref name="Gavin Flood 2007">Template:Cite speech</ref>

A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and bala (powers), such as averting danger (santih) and the ability to harm enemies (abhicarah).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Ganachakras, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis.<ref name="Gavin Flood 2007"/>Template:Sfn The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.Template:Sfn

Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers as anima (awareness than one is present in everything), laghima (lightness, be free from presumed diversity or differences), mahima (heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own consciousness), prapti (attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature), prakamya (forbearance, grasp and accept cosmic diversity), vasita (control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one wants), isitva (self lordship, a yogi is always free).Template:Sfn More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning (yuktih), scriptures (sastras) and the initiating Guru.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Kashmir Shaivism

{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}

File:Nandi, the Bull Mount of Shiva LACMA M.87.272.10.jpg

A 3rd century Nandi statue from Kashmir.

Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was overwhelmed by the Islamic invasions from the Hindu Kush region.<ref>Template:Cite book, Quote: "After the demise of the Trika as a lineage in Kashmir in the late 13th century, due in large measure to the invasion of Islam, a few rare manuscripts of this important and complex text..."</ref> The Kashmir Shaivism traditions contracted due to Islam except for their preservation by Kashmiri Pandits.<ref name=lawrenceiep/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The tradition experienced a revival in the 20th century due especially to influence of Swami Lakshmanjoo and his students.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and is distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also existed in medieval Kashmir.<ref>Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.61-66</ref><ref name="Flood, Gavin 1996. P.164-167"/><ref name=iepkasmirsaiva/> A notable philosophy of monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been the Pratyabhijna ideas, particularly those by the 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th century Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Wallis, Christopher; Tantra Illuminated, Chapter 2, Kashmir Shaivism</ref> Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in an advaita (monism) framework.<ref name=lawrenceiep>David Peter Lawrence (2012), Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy Template:Webarchive, IEP</ref><ref name="Flood, Gavin 1996. P.164-167">Flood, Gavin. D. 1996. An Introduction to Hinduism. P.164-167</ref> The Siva Sutras of 9th century Vasugupta and his ideas about Spanda have also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed.<ref name="Flood, Gavin 1996. P.164-167"/>Template:Sfn

A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism, Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism.<ref name=lawrenceiep/> For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was Trika, or modal triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century.<ref name=lawrenceiep/><ref name=iepkasmirsaiva>Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy Template:Webarchive, David Peter Lawrence, University of Manitoba, IEP (2010)</ref>Template:Sfn

Nath

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File:Gorakshanath.jpg

Goraknath founded the Nath Shaiva monastic movement.

Nath is a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition based on Yoga.Template:Sfn The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru, and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose devotees were called "Yogi" or "Jogi", given their monastic unconventional ways and emphasis on Yoga.Template:Sfn<ref name="Natha">Natha Template:Webarchive, Encyclopedia Britannica (2007)</ref><ref name="Singleton2010p27">Template:Cite book</ref>

Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises, exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th century Matsyendranath and to ideas and organization developed by Gorakshanath.Template:Sfn They combined both theistic practices such as worshipping goddesses and their historic Gurus in temples, as well monistic goals of achieving liberation or jivan-mukti while alive, by reaching the perfect (siddha) state of realizing oneness of self and everything with Shiva.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

They formed monastic organisations,Template:Sfn and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=thapar165>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Lingayatism

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File:Necklace with Shiva's Family LACMA M.85.140.jpg

A necklace with pendant containing linga symbol of Shiva are worn by Lingayats.<ref name=olson244>Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 243–244</ref>

Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India.<ref name=britlingayat/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It was founded by the 12th-century philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers, called Sharanas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja.<ref name=britlingayat/> Its worship is notable for the iconographic form of Ishtalinga, which the adherents wear.<ref>Fredrick Bunce (2010), Hindu deities, demi-gods, godlings, demons, and heroes, Template:ISBN, page 983</ref><ref name=janpeter>Jan Peter Schouten (1995), Revolution of the Mystics: On the Social Aspects of Vīraśaivism, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, pages 2–3</ref> Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of Karnataka and nearby regions.<ref name=britlingayat>Lingayat: Hindu sect Template:Webarchive, Encyclopedia Britannica (2015)</ref><ref>Template:Cite book; Quote: "The Lingayats are a Hindu sect concentrated in the state of Karnataka (a southern provincial state of India), which covers 191,773 square kilometers. The Lingayats constitute around 20 percent of the total population in that state."</ref>Template:Sfn Lingayatism has its own theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.Template:Sfn

They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their scripture to be Basava Purana, which was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.<ref name="Rice1982p64">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Lingayat (Veerashaiva) thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.<ref name=leelaprasad>Leela Prasad (2012), Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town, Columbia University Press, Template:ISBN, page 104</ref><ref name=roghair7>Template:Harvnb</ref> The 13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras."<ref name=leelaprasad/><ref name=roghair7/>

Demography and Presence of believers

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.<ref>The global religious landscape: Hindus Template:Webarchive, Pew Research (2012)</ref> Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. In North Indian communities Shaivism is most practiced amongst the Kashmiri Hindus and Paharis of Himalayan belt. Substantial communities are also found in Haryana, Maharashtra and central Uttar Pradesh.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

File:3 Buddha and Shiva Linga Vajrayana Buddhism.jpg

Shaivism and Buddhism have co-developed in many regions. Above a syncretic image of Yoni-Linga with four reliefs of the Buddha in a Vajrayana temple.

According to Galvin Flood, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.<ref name=flood200shakti>Template:Cite book, Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.<ref>Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 40–41, 302–315, 371–375</ref>

Influence

Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts (Nataraja) have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.

Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of Indochina, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java and Bali.Template:Sfn This influence on classical Cambodia, Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with the same Indians.Template:Sfn<ref name="Subramanian1989">Template:Cite book</ref>

In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been Bhattara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which means "noble lord".<ref>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 16, 123, 494–495, 550–552</ref> He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 130–131, 550–552</ref> However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.<ref>Hariani Santiko (1997), The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period Template:Webarchive, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209–226</ref><ref name=ghose15>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 15–17</ref> Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms.<ref name=ghose15/> The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).<ref>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 155–157, 462–463</ref>

As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion (though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the Chola, Nayaks(lingayats)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and the Rajputs. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre-Islamic Malaya.<ref>Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. "A Historical Sketch of Saivism", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), Volume IV pages 63 -78.</ref><ref>For more on the subject of Shaivite influence on Indonesia, one could read N.J.Krom, Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst/Introduction to Hindu-Javanese Art, The Hague, Martinus Nijhof, 1923</ref> In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.

File:God marriage AS.jpg

A seated Ardhanarishvara symbolically presenting the feminine Shakti as inseparable part of masculine Shiva.

Shaktism

The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, but Shaivism also itself was influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva).Template:Sfn The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable partner of God Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate.<ref name=flood200shakti/> Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.Template:Sfn

Smarta Tradition

Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, which is a tradition within Hinduism.<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">Template:Cite book</ref> The Smartas are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices include the Panchayatana puja, a ritual that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.Template:Sfn

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons of saguna Brahman, a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal God with form), rather than as distinct beings.<ref name="Flood1996p17a">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman (metaphysical Ultimate Reality) – as "That art Thou".<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/><ref name="lexicon">The Four Denominations of Hinduism Template:Webarchive, Basics of Hinduism, Kauai Hindu Monastery</ref><ref name="Harle1994p141">Template:Cite book</ref>

Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval India and is attributed to 8th century Adi Shankara,<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/><ref name="lexicon"/> but archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).<ref name="Williams1981p2">Template:Cite book</ref> According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded the pancayatana architecture, from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir. Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple complex, while some explicitly include dual representations of deities such as Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu).<ref name="Harle1994p141"/>

Vaishnavism

Template:Multiple image Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the Vishnu Purana primarily focuses on the theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu.Template:Sfn The Vishnu Sahasranama in the Mahabharata list a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.Template:Sfn

Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.Template:Sfn Harihara temples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.Template:Sfn

Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the same divine.Template:Sfn The Skanda Purana, for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva."Template:Sfn

Sauraism (Sun deity)

The sun god called Surya is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges these.Template:Sfn For example, the Shaiva text Srikanthiyasamhita mentions 85 Saura texts, almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains. Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as Saurasamhita acknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of Shaiva text Vathula-Kalottara.Template:Sfn

Yoga movements

File:Shiva Bijapur.jpg

Many Shaiva temples present Shiva in yoga pose.

Yoga and meditation have been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha Yoga.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Alexis Sanderson (1999), YOGA IN ŚAIVISM Template:Webarchive, Oxford University, pages 1-7</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva tritha (pilgrimage) centers, as well as Shaiva texts, depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein Shiva is a lone yogi meditating.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfn

In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi. The Shiva Sutras (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms. According to Mark Dyczkowski, yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the "realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive", and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one is.Template:Sfn

Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods in ways such as introducing Hatha Yoga techniques. One such movement had been the Nath Yogis, a Shaivism sub-tradition that integrated "esoteric traditions drawn from Buddhism, Shaivism, and Hatha Yoga,"<ref name="Natha"/> and influenced 18th century Advaita Vedanta.<ref name="Singleton2010p27"/> It was founded by Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath.<ref name="Natha"/><ref name="Singleton2010p27"/><ref>Nath Sampradaya Template:Webarchive, James Mallinson (2011), Brill Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 3, Brill Academic, pp. 407–428.</ref> The texts of these Yoga emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.Template:Refn

File:2017 Nataraja Shiva at Badami Hindu temple, Sculpture de Siva.jpg

Dancing Shiva Nataraja at the 6th century Badami cave temples.

Hindu performance arts

Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.<ref name=panthey1987>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=rao227>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), Chola period, c. 10th/11th century Template:Webarchive The Art Institute of Chicago, United States</ref> This is celebrated in Shaiva temples as Nataraja, which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on performance arts called the Natya Shastra.<ref name=rao227/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Gomathi Narayanan (1986), SHIVA NATARAJA AS A SYMBOL OF PARADOX Template:Webarchive, Journal of South Asian Literature, Vol. 21, No. 2, page 215</ref>

Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu temples. For example, it is found in Badami cave temples, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as Bharatanatyam and Chhau.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Buddhism

Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient times in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and Hindus worshipped in the same temple such as in the Seto Machindranath. In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the 1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.<ref name="Blurton1993p84"/>Template:Refn The Buddhist Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,<ref name="Blurton1993p30">Template:Cite book</ref> but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva Maitreya with him shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.<ref name="Blurton1993p84"/> According to Richard Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in common with Shiva in Shaivism.<ref name="Blurton1993p30"/> The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts, syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common. This is evdient in the Kizil Caves in Xinjiang, where there are numerous caves that depict Shiva in the buddhist shrines through wall paintings<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.<ref name=rghose4/> This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.<ref name=rghose4/>Template:Refn In the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.<ref>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 160–165</ref>Template:Refn This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya (Hindu Sun god) on left.<ref>R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 94–96, 253</ref><ref>Rk Sahu (2011), Iconography of Surya in the Temple Art of Odisha Template:Webarchive, Orissa Review, Volume 11, page 31</ref>

On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the Nyepi – a "festival of silence", the observations are officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.<ref name=rghose4/><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Jacob Ensink (1978), Siva-Buddhism in Java and Bali, Buddhism in Ceylon and studies on religious syncretism in Buddhist countries, Vol. 133, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, pages 146–177</ref>

Jainism

Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India where it received royal support from Hindu kings of the Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.Template:Sfn In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-goddesses.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using japas (mantra recitation) and making offerings into Homa fire.Template:Sfn

According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.Template:Sfn The 11th-century Jain text Bhairavapadmavatikalpa, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon, particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology, Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world according to Jainism.Template:Sfn

Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.Template:Sfn While Shaiva and Jain practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.Template:Sfn

Temples and pilgrimage

Template:Location map+ Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other regional literature refer to temples by various terms such as Mandir, Shivayatana, Shivalaya, Shambhunatha, Jyotirlingam, Shristhala, Chattraka, Bhavaggana, Bhuvaneshvara, Goputika, Harayatana, Kailasha, Mahadevagriha, Saudhala and others.<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press</ref> In Southeast Asia Shaiva temples are called Candi (Java),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Pura (Bali),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and Wat (Cambodia and nearby regions).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage sites such as Varanasi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, and others are broadly considered holy in Hinduism. They are called kṣétra (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र<ref>Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, क्षेत्र Template:Webarchive "sacred spot, place of pilgrimage".</ref>). A kṣétra has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).<ref>Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge, Template:ISBN</ref>

Many of the historic Puranas literature embed tourism guide to Shaivism-related pilgrimage centers and temples.Template:Sfn For example, the Skanda Purana deals primarily with Tirtha Mahatmyas (pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points,Template:Sfn but also includes a chapter stating that a temple and tirtha is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (sangam), natural springs, origin of Ganges River (and pancha-ganga), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are particularly revered spots in Shaivism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=saraswati6/> Twelve jyotirlinga sites across India have been particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of infiniteness,<ref name="Lochtefeld">Lochtefeld 2002, pp. 324-325</ref><ref name="E. U. Harding">Harding 1998, pp. 158-158</ref><ref name="paris_congress">Vivekananda Vol. 4</ref> as per Śiva Mahāpurāṇa.<ref name="R.">Template:Harvnb</ref> They are Somnatha, Mallikarjuna, Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnatha, Bhimashankar, Visheshvara, Trayambakesvara, Vaidyanatha, Nageshvara, Rameshvara and Grishneshwar.<ref name=saraswati6>Template:Cite book</ref> Other texts mention five Kedras (Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha, Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.<ref name=saraswati6/> Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads such as the Jabala Upanishad.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.<ref>Indira Peterson (1983), Lives of the wandering singers: Pilgrimage and poetry in Tamil Śaivite hagiography, History of Religions, University of Chicago Press, Vol. 22, No. 4, pages 338–360</ref><ref>Indira Peterson (1982), Singing of a place: pilgrimage as metaphor and motif in the Tēvāram songs of the Tamil Śaivite saints Template:Webarchive, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 102, No. 1, pages 69–90</ref>

See also

• Chaturdasa Devata
• Hindu denominations
• History of Shaivism
• Jangam Lingayat
• Shaiva Siddhanta
• Kashmiri Shaivism

Sources

• Template:Cite book (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
• Template:Cite book Third AES reprint edition, 1995.
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Further reading

• Template:Cite book
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External links

• Encyclopædia Britannica, "Shaivism"
• Saivism.Net
• Alexis sanderson, Publications, scholarly studies in Shaivism
• Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Saivism