Template:Short description Template:Pp-move Template:Pp Template:Redirect-multi Template:EngvarB Template:Use dmy dates Template:Infobox religious biography Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists Siddhartha Gautama,Template:Efn most commonly referred to as the Buddha (Template:Literal translation),<ref name="the-awakened-one">*Template:Cite book
</ref>Template:EfnTemplate:Efn was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South AsiaTemplate:Efn during the 6th or 5th century BCETemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Efn and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was born in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal,Template:Efn to royal parents of the Shakya clan, but renounced his home life to live as a wandering ascetic.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn After leading a life of mendicancy, asceticism, and meditation, he attained nirvana at Bodh Gayā in what is now India. The Buddha then wandered through the lower Indo-Gangetic Plain, teaching and building a monastic order. Buddhist tradition holds he died in Kushinagar and reached parinirvana ("final release from conditioned existence").Template:SfnTemplate:Efn
According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and severe asceticism,Template:Sfnp leading to freedom from ignorance, craving, rebirth, and suffering. His core teachings are summarized in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, a training of the mind that includes ethical training and kindness toward others, and meditative practices such as sense restraint, mindfulness, dhyana (meditation proper). Another key element of his teachings are the concepts of the five skandhas and dependent origination, describing how all dharmas (both mental states and concrete 'things') come into being, and cease to be, depending on other dharmas, lacking an existence on their own svabhava).
While in the Nikayas he frequently refers to himself as the Tathāgata, the earliest attestation of the title Buddha is from the 3rd century BCE,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp meaning 'Awakened One' or 'Enlightened One'.Template:Sfnp His teachings were compiled by the Buddhist community in the Vinaya, his codes for monastic practice, and the Sutta Piṭaka, a compilation of teachings based on his discourses. These were passed down in Middle Indo-Aryan dialects through an oral tradition.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Later generations composed additional texts, such as systematic treatises known as Abhidharma, biographies of the Buddha, collections of stories about his past lives known as Jataka tales, and additional discourses, i.e., the Mahāyāna sūtras.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Buddhism evolved into a variety of traditions and practices, represented by Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, and spread beyond the Indian subcontinent. While Buddhism declined in India, and mostly disappeared after the 8th century CE due to a lack of popular and economic support, Buddhism is more prominent in Southeast and East Asia.
Etymology, names and titlesEdit
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Siddhārtha Gautama and Buddha ShakyamuniEdit
According to Donald Lopez Jr., "... he tended to be known as either Buddha or Sakyamuni in China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet, and as either Gotama Buddha or Samana Gotama ('the ascetic Gotama') in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia."<ref>Donald Lopez Jr., The Scientific Buddha: His Short and Happy Life, Yale University Press, p.24</ref>
Buddha, "Awakened One" or "Enlightened One",Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnTemplate:Efn is the masculine form of budh (बुध् ), "to wake, be awake, observe, heed, attend, learn, become aware of, to know, be conscious again",<ref name="Monier-WilliamsLeumann2002p733">Template:Cite book</ref> "to awaken"Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfn Template:"'to open up' (as does a flower)",Template:Sfn "one who has awakened from the deep sleep of ignorance and opened his consciousness to encompass all objects of knowledge".Template:Sfn It is not a personal name, but a title for those who have attained bodhi (awakening, enlightenment).Template:Sfnp Buddhi, the power to "form and retain concepts, reason, discern, judge, comprehend, understand",<ref name="Monier-WilliamsLeumann2002p733"/> is the faculty which discerns truth (satya) from falsehood.
The name of his clan was Gautama (Pali: Gotama). His given name, "Siddhārtha" (the Sanskrit form; the Pali rendering is "Siddhattha"; in Tibetan it is "Don grub"; in Chinese "Xidaduo"; in Japanese "Shiddatta/Shittatta"; in Korean "Siltalta") means "He Who Achieves His Goal" (Siddhi).Template:Sfn The clan name of Gautama means "descendant of Gotama", "Gotama" meaning "one who has the most light",<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> or "one who has most cows" and comes from the fact that Kshatriya clans adopted the names of their house priests.<ref name=":0">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
While the term Buddha is used in the Agamas and the Pali Canon, the oldest surviving written records of the term Buddha is from the middle of the 3rd century BCE, when several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned Template:Circa–232 BCE) mention the Buddha and Buddhism.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Ashoka's Lumbini pillar inscription commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace, calling him the Buddha ShakyamuniTemplate:Px2Template:Efn (Brahmi script: 𑀩𑀼𑀥 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻 Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī, "Buddha, Sage of the Shakyas").Template:Sfnp
Śākyamuni, Sakyamuni, or Shakyamuni (Template:Langx, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) means "Sage of the Shakyas".Template:Sfnp
TathāgataEdit
Tathāgata (Pali; {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) is a term the Buddha commonly used when referring to himself or other Buddhas in the Pāli Canon.Template:Sfn The exact meaning of the term is unknown, but it is often thought to mean either "one who has thus gone" (tathā-gata), "one who has thus come" (tathā-āgata), or sometimes "one who has thus not gone" (tathā-agata). This is interpreted as signifying that the Tathāgata is beyond all coming and going—beyond all transitory phenomena.<ref name="Chalmers">Chalmers, Robert. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1898. pp.103–115 Template:Webarchive</ref> A tathāgata is "immeasurable", "inscrutable", "hard to fathom", and "not apprehended".<ref name="Harvey1995">Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press 1995, p.227</ref>
Other epithetsEdit
A list of other epithets is commonly seen together in canonical texts and depicts some of his perfected qualities:<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
- Bhagavato (Bhagavan) – The Blessed one, one of the most used epithets, together with tathāgataTemplate:Sfn
- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened
- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.
- Sugata – Well-gone or well-spoken.
- Lokavidu – Knower of the many worlds.
- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.
- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.
- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge".
- Jina – Conqueror. Although the term is more commonly used to name an individual who has attained liberation in the religion Jainism, it is also an alternative title for the Buddha.<ref>Template:Cite book Entry: "Jina"</ref>
The Pali Canon also contains numerous other titles and epithets for the Buddha, including: All-seeing, All-transcending sage, Bull among men, The Caravan leader, Dispeller of darkness, The Eye, Foremost of charioteers, Foremost of those who can cross, King of the Dharma (Dharmaraja), Kinsman of the Sun, Helper of the World (Lokanatha), Lion (Siha), Lord of the Dhamma, Of excellent wisdom (Varapañña), Radiant One, Torchbearer of mankind, Unsurpassed doctor and surgeon, Victor in battle, and Wielder of power.<ref>Snyder, David N. (2006) "The Complete Book of Buddha's Lists—explained". Vipassana Foundation, list 605 p. 429.</ref> Another epithet, used at inscriptions throughout South and Southeast Asia, is Maha sramana, "great sramana" (ascetic, renunciate).
SourcesEdit
Historical sourcesEdit
Pali suttasEdit
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On the basis of philological evidence, Indologist and Pāli expert Oskar von Hinüber says that some of the Pāli suttas have retained very archaic place-names, syntax, and historical data from close to the Buddha's lifetime, including the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta which contains a detailed account of the Buddha's final days. Hinüber proposes a composition date of no later than 350–320 BCE for this text, which would allow for a "true historical memory" of the events approximately 60 years prior if the Short Chronology for the Buddha's lifetime is accepted (but he also points out that such a text was originally intended more as hagiography than as an exact historical record of events).Template:Sfnp<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
John S. Strong sees certain biographical fragments in the canonical texts preserved in Pāli, as well as Chinese, Tibetan and Sanskrit as the earliest material. These include texts such as the "Discourse on the Noble Quest" (Ariyapariyesanā-sutta) and its parallels in other languages.Template:Sfnp
Pillar and rock inscriptionsEdit
No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from the one or two centuries thereafter.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> But from the middle of the 3rd century BCE, several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned c. 268 to 232 BCE) mention the Buddha and Buddhism.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Particularly, Ashoka's Lumbini pillar inscription commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace, calling him the Buddha Shakyamuni (Brahmi script: 𑀩𑀼𑀥 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻 Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī, "Buddha, Sage of the Shakyas").Template:EfnTemplate:Sfnp<ref name="Brill"/> Another one of his edicts (Minor Rock Edict No. 3) mentions the titles of several Dhamma texts (in Buddhism, "dhamma" is another word for "dharma"),<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era. These texts may be the precursor of the Pāli Canon.Template:Sfnp<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Efn
"Sakamuni" is also mentioned in a relief of Bharhut, dated to Template:Circa, in relation with his illumination and the Bodhi tree, with the inscription Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho ("The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni").<ref name="KTSS80">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=JL>Template:Cite book</ref>
Oldest surviving manuscriptsEdit
The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, found in Gandhara (corresponding to modern northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) and written in Gāndhārī, they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Biographical sourcesEdit
Early canonical sources include the Ariyapariyesana Sutta (MN 26), the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta (DN 16), the Mahāsaccaka-sutta (MN 36), the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123), which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātaka tales retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.Template:Sfnp The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.
The sources which present a complete picture of the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies from a later date. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.Template:Sfnp Of these, the BuddhacaritaTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa in the first century CE.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.Template:Sfnp
The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.Template:Sfnp The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,Template:Sfnp and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.Template:Sfnp
Historical personEdit
Understanding the historical personEdit
Scholars are hesitant to make claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most of them accept that the Buddha lived, taught, and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada period, specifically during the reign of Bimbisara, ruler of Magadha, and died during the reign of Bimbisara's successor Ajatashatru, thus also making him a contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
There is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp as "Buddhist scholars [...] have mostly given up trying to understand the historical person."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The earliest versions of Buddhist biographical texts that we have already contain many supernatural, mythical, or legendary elements. In the 19th century, some scholars simply omitted these from their accounts of the life, so that "the image projected was of a Buddha who was a rational, socratic teacher—a great person perhaps, but a more or less ordinary human being". More recent scholars tend to see such demythologisers as remythologisers, "creating a Buddha that appealed to them, by eliding one that did not".<ref>Strong, John, ix–x in "Forward" to The Thousand and One Lives of the Buddha, by Bernard Faure, 2022, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 9780824893545, google books Template:Webarchive</ref>
DatingEdit
The dates of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Within the Eastern Buddhist tradition of China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan, the traditional date for Buddha's death was 949 BCE,Template:Sfnp but according to the Ka-tan system of the Kalachakra tradition, Buddha's death was about 833 BCE.<ref>Das, Sarat Chandra (1882). Contributions on the Religion and History of Tibet. First published in: Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LI. Reprint: Manjushri Publishing House, Delhi. 1970, pp. 81–82 footnote 6.</ref>
Buddhist texts present two chronologies which have been used to date the lifetime of the Buddha.Template:Sfnp The "long chronology", from Sri Lankese chronicles, states the Buddha had a lifespan of 80 years and died 218 years before Asoka's coronation, thus from which it is inferred that he was born about 298 years before the coronation. According to these chronicles, Asoka was crowned in 326 BCE, which gives Buddha's lifespan as 624–544 BCE, and are the accepted dates in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.Template:Sfnp Alternatively, most scholars who also accept the long chronology but date Asoka's coronation around 268 BCE (based on Greek evidence) put the Buddha's lifespan later at 566–486 BCE.Template:Sfnp
However, the "short chronology", from Indian sources and their Chinese and Tibetan translations, while also giving a lifespan of 80 years, place the Buddha's death 100 years before Asoka's coronation, from which his birth is inferred at about 180 years before the coronation. Following the Greek sources of Asoka's coronation as 268 BCE, this dates the Buddha's lifespan even later as 448–368 BCE.Template:Sfnp
Most historians in the early 20th century use the earlier dates of 563–483 BCE, differing from the long chronology based on Greek evidence by just three years.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp More recently, there are attempts to put his death midway between the long chronology's 480s BCE and the short chronology's 360s BCE, so circa 410 BCE. At a symposium on this question held in 1988,Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp the majority of those who presented gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Efn<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> These alternative chronologies, however, have not been accepted by all historians.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Efn
The dating of Bimbisara and Ajatashatru also depends on the long or short chronology. In the long chrononology, Bimbisara reigned Template:Circa, and died 492 BCE,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp while Ajatashatru reigned Template:Circa.Template:Sfn In the short chronology Bimbisara reigned Template:Circa,Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn while Ajatashatru died between Template:Circa and 330 BCE.Template:Sfnp According to historian K. T. S. Sarao, a proponent of the Short Chronology wherein the Buddha's lifespan was Template:Circa, it can be estimated that Bimbisara was reigning Template:Circa, and Ajatashatru was reigning Template:Circa.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>
Historical contextEdit
ShakyasEdit
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According to the Buddhist tradition, Shakyamuni Buddha was a Shakya, a sub-Himalayan ethnicity and clan of north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent.Template:EfnTemplate:Efn The Shakya community was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.Template:Sfnp The community, though describable as a small republic, was probably an oligarchy, with his father as the elected chieftain or oligarch.Template:Sfnp The Shakyas were widely considered to be non-Vedic (and, hence impure) in Brahminic texts; their origins remain speculative and debated.<ref name="Levman2013">Template:Cite journal</ref> Bronkhorst terms this culture, which grew alongside Aryavarta without being affected by the flourish of Brahminism, as Greater Magadha.<ref>Bronkhorst, J. (2007). "Greater Magadha, Studies in the culture of Early India", p. 6. Leiden, Boston, MA: Brill. {{#invoke:doi|main}}</ref>
The Buddha's tribe of origin, the Shakyas, seems to have had non-Vedic religious practices which persist in Buddhism, such as the veneration of trees and sacred groves, and the worship of tree spirits (yakshas) and serpent beings (nāgas). They also seem to have built burial mounds called stupas.<ref name=Levman2013 /> Tree veneration remains important in Buddhism today, particularly in the practice of venerating Bodhi trees. Likewise, yakshas and nāgas have remained important figures in Buddhist religious practices and mythology.<ref name=Levman2013 />
ShramanasEdit
The Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of influential śramaṇa schools of thought like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana.Template:Sfnp The Brahmajala Sutta records sixty-two such schools of thought. In this context, a śramaṇa refers to one who labours, toils or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose). It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, as recorded in Samaññaphala Sutta, with whose viewpoints the Buddha must have been acquainted.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Efn
Śāriputra and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the sceptic.Template:Sfnp The Pāli canon frequently depicts Buddha engaging in debate with the adherents of rival schools of thought. There is philological evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Rāmaputta, were historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.Template:Sfnp Thus, Buddha was just one of the many śramaṇa philosophers of that time.Template:Sfnp In an era where holiness of person was judged by their level of asceticism,Template:Sfnp Buddha was a reformist within the śramaṇa movement, rather than a reactionary against Vedic Brahminism.Template:Sfnp
Coningham and Young note that both Jains and Buddhists used stupas, while tree shrines can be found in both Buddhism and Hinduism.Template:Sfn
Urban environment and egalitarianismEdit
The rise of Buddhism coincided with the Second Urbanisation, in which the Ganges Basin was settled and cities grew, in which egalitarianism prevailed. According to Thapar, the Buddha's teachings were "also a response to the historical changes of the time, among which were the emergence of the state and the growth of urban centres".Template:Sfn While the Buddhist mendicants renounced society, they lived close to the villages and cities, depending for alms-givings on lay supporters.Template:Sfn
According to Dyson, the Ganges basin was settled from the north-west and the south-east, as well as from within, "[coming] together in what is now Bihar (the location of Pataliputra)".Template:Sfn The Ganges basin was densely forested, and the population grew when new areas were deforestated and cultivated.Template:Sfn The society of the middle Ganges basin lay on "the outer fringe of Aryan cultural influence",Template:Sfn and differed significantly from the Aryan society of the western Ganges basin.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Stein and Burton, "[t]he gods of the brahmanical sacrificial cult were not rejected so much as ignored by Buddhists and their contemporaries."Template:Sfn Jainism and Buddhism opposed the social stratification of Brahmanism, and their egalitarism prevailed in the cities of the middle Ganges basin.Template:Sfn This "allowed Jains and Buddhists to engage in trade more easily than Brahmans, who were forced to follow strict caste prohibitions."Template:Sfn
Semi-legendary biographyEdit
Nature of traditional depictionsEdit
In the earliest Buddhist texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu)Template:Sfnp nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu.Template:Sfnp In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā).<ref>MN 71 Tevijjavacchagotta [Tevijjavaccha]</ref> The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty-five-year career as a teacher.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Traditional biographies of Gautama often include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".Template:Sfnp As noted by Andrew Skilton, the Buddha was often described as being superhuman, including descriptions of him having the 32 major and 80 minor marks of a "great man", and the idea that the Buddha could live for as long as an aeon if he wished (see DN 16).Template:Sfnp
The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.Template:Sfnp British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.Template:Sfnp Michael Carrithers goes further, stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.Template:Sfnp
Previous livesEdit
Legendary biographies like the Pali Buddhavaṃsa and the Sanskrit Jātakamālā depict the Buddha's (referred to as "bodhisattva" before his awakening) career as spanning hundreds of lifetimes before his last birth as Gautama. Many of these previous lives are narrated in the Jatakas, which consists of 547 stories.Template:Sfnp<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The format of a Jataka typically begins by telling a story in the present which is then explained by a story of someone's previous life.Template:Sfnp
Besides imbuing the pre-Buddhist past with a deep karmic history, the Jatakas also serve to explain the bodhisattva's (the Buddha-to-be) path to Buddhahood.Template:Sfnp In biographies like the Buddhavaṃsa, this path is described as long and arduous, taking "four incalculable ages" (asamkheyyas).Template:Sfnp
In these legendary biographies, the bodhisattva goes through many different births (animal and human), is inspired by his meeting of past Buddhas, and then makes a series of resolves or vows (pranidhana) to become a Buddha himself. Then he begins to receive predictions by past Buddhas.Template:Sfnp One of the most popular of these stories is his meeting with Dipankara Buddha, who gives the bodhisattva a prediction of future Buddhahood.Template:Sfnp
Another theme found in the Pali Jataka Commentary (Jātakaṭṭhakathā) and the Sanskrit Jātakamālā is how the Buddha-to-be had to practice several "perfections" (pāramitā) to reach Buddhahood.Template:Sfnp The Jatakas also sometimes depict negative actions done in previous lives by the bodhisattva, which explain difficulties he experienced in his final life as Gautama.Template:Sfnp
Birth and early lifeEdit
According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini,<ref name="WHC">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Victoria and Albert Museum">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> now in modern-day Nepal,Template:Efn and raised in Kapilavastu.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown.Template:Sfnp It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, in present-day India,Template:Sfnp or Tilaurakot, in present-day Nepal.Template:Sfnp Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only Template:Convert apart.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn
In the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was Gautama's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "...this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas (Śākyamuni), was born."Template:Sfnp
According to later biographies such as the Mahavastu and the Lalitavistara, his mother, Maya, Suddhodana's wife, was a princess from Devdaha, the ancient capital of the Koliya Kingdom (what is now the Rupandehi District of Nepal). Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp and ten months laterTemplate:Sfnp Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother became pregnant, she left Kapilavastu for her father's kingdom to give birth.
Her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The earliest Buddhist sources state that the Buddha was born to an aristocratic Kshatriya (Pali: khattiya) family called Gautama (Pali: Gotama), who were part of the Shakyas, a tribe of rice-farmers living near the modern border of India and Nepal.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Efn His father Śuddhodana was "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",Template:Sfnp whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime.
The early Buddhist texts contain very little information about the birth and youth of Gotama Buddha.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Later biographies developed a dramatic narrative about the life of the young Gotama as a prince and his existential troubles.Template:Sfnp They depict his father Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Template:IAST (Pāli: Okkāka). This is unlikely, as many scholars think that Śuddhodana was merely a Shakya aristocrat (khattiya), and that the Shakya republic was not a hereditary monarchy.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The more egalitarian [[gaṇasaṅgha|Template:Transliteration]] form of government, as a political alternative to Indian monarchies, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas,Template:Efn where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.Template:Sfnp
The day of the Buddha's birth, enlightenment and death is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak and the day he got conceived as Poson.Template:Sfnp Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal, Bangladesh, and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
According to later biographical legends, during the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode, analyzed the child for the "32 marks of a great man" and then announced that he would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great religious leader.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave similar predictions.Template:Sfnp Kaundinya, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.Template:Sfnp
Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.Template:Sfnp According to the early Buddhist Texts of several schools, and numerous post-canonical accounts, Gotama had a wife, Yasodhara, and a son, named Rāhula.Template:Sfnp Besides this, the Buddha in the early texts reports that "I lived a spoilt, a very spoilt life, monks (in my parents' home)."Template:Sfnp
The legendary biographies like the Lalitavistara also tell stories of young Gotama's great martial skill, which was put to the test in various contests against other Shakyan youths.Template:Sfnp
RenunciationEdit
While the earliest sources merely depict Gotama seeking a higher spiritual goal and becoming an ascetic or śramaṇa after being disillusioned with lay life, the later legendary biographies tell a more elaborate dramatic story about how he became a mendicant.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
The earliest accounts of the Buddha's spiritual quest is found in texts such as the Pali Ariyapariyesanā-sutta ("The discourse on the noble quest", MN 26) and its Chinese parallel at MĀ 204.Template:Sfnp These texts report that what led to Gautama's renunciation was the thought that his life was subject to old age, disease and death and that there might be something better.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite journal</ref> The early texts also depict the Buddha's explanation for becoming a sramana as follows: "The household life, this place of impurity, is narrow—the samana life is the free open air. It is not easy for a householder to lead the perfected, utterly pure and perfect holy life."Template:Sfnp MN 26, MĀ 204, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and the Mahāvastu all agree that his mother and father opposed his decision and "wept with tearful faces" when he decided to leave.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Legendary biographies also tell the story of how Gautama left his palace to see the outside world for the first time and how he was shocked by his encounter with human suffering.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp These depict Gautama's father as shielding him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering, so that he would become a great king instead of a great religious leader.Template:Sfnp In the Nidanakatha (5th century CE), Gautama is said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Chandaka explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic that inspired him.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp This story of the "four sights" seems to be adapted from an earlier account in the Digha Nikaya (DN 14.2) which instead depicts the young life of a previous Buddha, Vipassi.Template:Sfnp
The legendary biographies depict Gautama's departure from his palace as follows. Shortly after seeing the four sights, Gautama woke up at night and saw his female servants lying in unattractive, corpse-like poses, which shocked him.Template:Sfnp Therefore, he discovered what he would later understand more deeply during his enlightenment: dukkha ("standing unstable", "dissatisfaction"Template:SfnTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp) and the end of dukkha.Template:Sfnp Moved by all the things he had experienced, he decided to leave the palace in the middle of the night against the will of his father, to live the life of a wandering ascetic.Template:Sfnp
Accompanied by Chandaka and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama leaves the palace, leaving behind his son Rahula and Yaśodhara.Template:Sfnp He travelled to the river Anomiya, and cut off his hair. Leaving his servant and horse behind, he journeyed into the woods and changed into monk's robes there,Template:Sfnp though in some other versions of the story, he received the robes from a Brahma deity at Anomiya.Template:Sfnp
According to the legendary biographies, when the ascetic Gautama first went to Rajagaha (present-day Rajgir) to beg for alms in the streets, King Bimbisara of Magadha learned of his quest, and offered him a share of his kingdom. Gautama rejected the offer but promised to visit his kingdom first, upon attaining enlightenment.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Ascetic life and awakeningEdit
Majjhima Nikaya 4 mentions that Gautama lived in "remote jungle thickets" during his years of spiritual striving and had to overcome the fear that he felt while living in the forests.Template:Sfnp The Nikaya-texts narrate that the ascetic Gautama practised under two teachers of yogic meditation.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp According to the Ariyapariyesanā-sutta (MN 26) and its Chinese parallel at MĀ 204, after having mastered the teaching of Ārāḍa Kālāma (Template:Langx), who taught a meditation attainment called "the sphere of nothingness", he was asked by Ārāḍa to become an equal leader of their spiritual community.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice because it "does not lead to revulsion, to dispassion, to cessation, to calm, to knowledge, to awakening, to Nibbana", and moved on to become a student of Udraka Rāmaputra (Template:Langx).Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp With him, he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness (called "The Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception") and was again asked to join his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied for the same reasons as before, and moved on.Template:Sfnp
According to some sutras, after leaving his meditation teachers, Gotama then practiced ascetic techniques.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn The ascetic techniques described in the early texts include very minimal food intake, different forms of breath control, and forceful mind control. The texts report that he became so emaciated that his bones became visible through his skin.Template:Sfnp The Mahāsaccaka-sutta and most of its parallels agree that after taking asceticism to its extremes, Gautama realized that this had not helped him attain nirvana, and that he needed to regain strength to pursue his goal.Template:Sfnp One popular story tells of how he accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
According to the 身毛喜豎經,Template:Efn his break with asceticism led his five companions to abandon him, since they believed that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined. At this point, Gautama remembered a previous experience of dhyana ("meditation") he had as a child sitting under a tree while his father worked.Template:Sfnp This memory leads him to understand that dhyana is the path to liberation, and the texts then depict the Buddha achieving all four dhyanas, followed by the "three higher knowledges" (tevijja),Template:Efn culminating in complete insight into the Four Noble Truths, thereby attaining liberation from samsara, the endless cycle of rebirth.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp<ref name="EB-DL Four Truths">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:Efn
According to the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56),<ref name="sn56">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the Tathagata, the term Gautama uses most often to refer to himself, realized "the Middle Way"—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path.<ref name="sn56" /> In later centuries, Gautama became known as the Buddha or "Awakened One". The title indicates that unlike most people who are "asleep", a Buddha is understood as having "woken up" to the true nature of reality and sees the world 'as it is' (yatha-bhutam).Template:Sfnp A Buddha has achieved liberation (vimutti), also called Nirvana, which is seen as the extinguishing of the "fires" of desire, hatred, and ignorance, that keep the cycle of suffering and rebirth going.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Following his decision to leave his meditation teachers, MĀ 204 and other parallel early texts report that Gautama sat down with the determination not to get up until full awakening (sammā-sambodhi) had been reached; the Ariyapariyesanā-sutta does not mention "full awakening", but only that he attained nirvana.Template:Sfnp In Buddhist tradition, this event was said to have occurred under a pipal tree—known as "the Bodhi tree"—in Bodh Gaya, Bihar.Template:Sfnp
As reported by various texts from the Pali Canon, the Buddha sat for seven days under the bodhi tree "feeling the bliss of deliverance".Template:Sfnp The Pali texts also report that he continued to meditate and contemplated various aspects of the Dharma while living by the River Nairañjanā, such as Dependent Origination, the Five Spiritual Faculties and suffering (dukkha).Template:Sfnp
The legendary biographies like the Mahavastu, Nidanakatha and the Lalitavistara depict an attempt by Mara, the ruler of the desire realm, to prevent the Buddha's nirvana. He does so by sending his daughters to seduce the Buddha, by asserting his superiority and by assaulting him with armies of monsters.Template:Sfnp However the Buddha is unfazed and calls on the earth (or in some versions of the legend, the earth goddess) as witness to his superiority by touching the ground before entering meditation.Template:Sfnp Other miracles and magical events are also depicted.
First sermon and formation of the saṅghaEdit
According to MN 26, immediately after his awakening, the Buddha hesitated on whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were overpowered by ignorance, greed, and hatred that it would be difficult for them to recognise the path, which is "subtle, deep and hard to grasp". However, the god Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some "with little dust in their eyes" will understand it. The Buddha relented and agreed to teach. According to Anālayo, the Chinese parallel to MN 26, MĀ 204, does not contain this story, but this event does appear in other parallel texts, such as in an Ekottarika-āgama discourse, in the Catusparisat-sūtra, and in the Lalitavistara.Template:Sfnp
According to MN 26 and MĀ 204, after deciding to teach, the Buddha initially intended to visit his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to teach them his insights, but they had already died, so he decided to visit his five former companions.Template:Sfnp MN 26 and MĀ 204 both report that on his way to Vārānasī (Benares), he met another wanderer, an Ājīvika ascetic named Upaka in MN 26. The Buddha proclaimed that he had achieved full awakening, but Upaka was not convinced and "took a different path".Template:Sfnp
MN 26 and MĀ 204 continue with the Buddha reaching the Deer Park (Sarnath) (Mrigadāva, also called Rishipatana, "site where the ashes of the ascetics fell")<ref name=":8">Template:Cite book</ref> near Vārānasī, where he met the group of five ascetics and was able to convince them that he had indeed reached full awakening.Template:Sfnp According to MĀ 204 (but not MN 26), as well as the Theravāda Vinaya, an Ekottarika-āgama text, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya, and the Mahāvastu, the Buddha then taught them the "first sermon", also known as the "Benares sermon",<ref name=":8" /> i.e., the teaching of "the noble eightfold path as the middle path aloof from the two extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification".Template:Sfnp The Pali text reports that after the first sermon, the ascetic Kaundinya became the first arhat (liberated being) and the first Buddhist bhikkhu or monastic.Template:Sfnp The Buddha then continued to teach the other ascetics and they formed the first [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Template:IAST]], the company of Buddhist monks.Template:Efn
Various sources such as the Mahāvastu, the Mahākhandhaka of the Theravāda Vinaya and the Catusparisat-sūtra also mention that the Buddha taught them his second discourse, about the characteristic of "not-self" (Anātmalakṣaṇa Sūtra), at this timeTemplate:Sfnp or five days later.<ref name=":8" /> After hearing this second sermon the four remaining ascetics also reached the status of arahant.<ref name=":8" />
The Theravāda Vinaya and the Catusparisat-sūtra also speak of the conversion of Yasa, a local guild master, and his friends and family, who were some of the first laypersons to be converted and to enter the Buddhist community.Template:Sfnp<ref name=":8" /> The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, who brought with them five hundred converts who had previously been "matted hair ascetics", and whose spiritual practice was related to fire sacrifices.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp According to the Theravāda Vinaya, the Buddha then stopped at the Gayasisa hill near Gaya and delivered his third discourse, the Ādittapariyāya Sutta (The Discourse on Fire),Template:Sfnp in which he taught that everything in the world is inflamed by passions and only those who follow the Eightfold path can be liberated.<ref name=":8" />
At the end of the rainy season, when the Buddha's community had grown to around sixty awakened monks, he instructed them to wander on their own, teach and ordain people into the community, for the "welfare and benefit" of the world.Template:Sfnp<ref name=":8" />
Travels and growth of the saṅghaEdit
For the remaining 40 or 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, ascetics and householders, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp According to Schumann, the Buddha's travels ranged from "Kosambi on the Yamuna (25 km south-west of Allahabad )", to Campa (40 km east of Bhagalpur)" and from "Kapilavatthu (95 km north-west of Gorakhpur) to Uruvela (south of Gaya)". This covers an area of 600 by 300 km.Template:Sfnp His sanghaTemplate:Efn enjoyed the patronage of the kings of Kosala and Magadha and he thus spent a lot of time in their respective capitals, Savatthi and Rajagaha.Template:Sfnp
Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it is likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardisation.
The sangha wandered throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vassa rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely travelled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to flora and animal life.Template:Sfnp The health of the ascetics might have been a concern as well.<ref>Bhikkhu Khantipalo (1995). "Lay Buddhist Practice, The Shrine Room, Uposatha Day, Rains Residence Template:Webarchive"</ref> At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. According to the Pali texts, shortly after the formation of the sangha, the Buddha travelled to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, and met with King Bimbisara, who gifted a bamboo grove park to the sangha.Template:Sfnp
The Buddha's sangha continued to grow during his initial travels in north India. The early texts tell the story of how the Buddha's chief disciples, Sāriputta and Mahāmoggallāna, who were both students of the skeptic sramana Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta, were converted by Assaji.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp They also tell of how the Buddha's son, Rahula, joined his father as a bhikkhu when the Buddha visited his old home, Kapilavastu.Template:Sfnp Over time, other Shakyans joined the order as bhikkhus, such as Buddha's cousin Ananda, Anuruddha, Upali the barber, the Buddha's half-brother Nanda and Devadatta.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Meanwhile, the Buddha's father Suddhodana heard his son's teaching, converted to Buddhism and became a stream-enterer.
The early texts also mention an important lay disciple, the merchant Anāthapiṇḍika, who became a strong lay supporter of the Buddha early on. He is said to have gifted Jeta's grove (Jetavana) to the sangha at great expense (the Theravada Vinaya speaks of thousands of gold coins).Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Formation of the bhikkhunī orderEdit
The formation of a parallel order of female monastics (bhikkhunī) was another important part of the growth of the Buddha's community. As noted by Anālayo's comparative study of this topic, there are various versions of this event depicted in the different early Buddhist texts.Template:Efn
According to all the major versions surveyed by Anālayo, Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī, Buddha's step-mother, is initially turned down by the Buddha after requesting ordination for her and some other women. Mahāprajāpatī and her followers then shave their hair, don robes and begin following the Buddha on his travels. The Buddha is eventually convinced by Ānanda to grant ordination to Mahāprajāpatī on her acceptance of eight conditions called gurudharmas which focus on the relationship between the new order of nuns and the monks.Template:Sfnp
According to Anālayo, the only argument common to all the versions that Ananda uses to convince the Buddha is that women have the same ability to reach all stages of awakening.Template:Sfnp Anālayo also notes that some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of the eight gurudharmas in their present form due to various inconsistencies. He holds that the historicity of the current lists of eight is doubtful, but that they may have been based on earlier injunctions by the Buddha.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Anālayo notes that various passages indicate that the reason for the Buddha's hesitation to ordain women was the danger that the life of a wandering sramana posed for women that were not under the protection of their male family members, such as dangers of sexual assault and abduction. Due to this, the gurudharma injunctions may have been a way to place "the newly founded order of nuns in a relationship to its male counterparts that resembles as much as possible the protection a laywoman could expect from her male relatives".Template:Sfnp
Later yearsEdit
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According to J.S. Strong, after the first 20 years of his teaching career, the Buddha seems to have slowly settled in Sravasti, the capital of the Kingdom of Kosala, spending most of his later years in this city.Template:Sfnp
As the sanghaTemplate:Efn grew in size, the need for a standardized set of monastic rules arose and the Buddha seems to have developed a set of regulations for the sangha. These are preserved in various texts called "Pratimoksa" which were recited by the community every fortnight. The Pratimoksa includes general ethical precepts, as well as rules regarding the essentials of monastic life, such as bowls and robes.Template:Sfnp
In his later years, the Buddha's fame grew and he was invited to important royal events, such as the inauguration of the new council hall of the Shakyans (as seen in MN 53) and the inauguration of a new palace by Prince Bodhi (as depicted in MN 85).Template:Sfnp The early texts also speak of how during the Buddha's old age, the kingdom of Magadha was usurped by a new king, Ajatashatru, who overthrew his father Bimbisara. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta, the new king spoke with different ascetic teachers and eventually took refuge in the Buddha.Template:Sfnp However, Jain sources also claim his allegiance, and it is likely he supported various religious groups, not just the Buddha's sangha exclusively.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
As the Buddha continued to travel and teach, he also came into contact with members of other śrāmana sects. There is evidence from the early texts that the Buddha encountered some of these figures and critiqued their doctrines. The Samaññaphala Sutta identifies six such sects.Template:Sfnp
The early texts also depict the elderly Buddha as suffering from back pain. Several texts depict him delegating teachings to his chief disciples since his body now needed more rest.Template:Sfnp However, the Buddha continued teaching well into his old age.
One of the most troubling events during the Buddha's old age was Devadatta's schism. Early sources speak of how the Buddha's cousin, Devadatta, attempted to take over leadership of the order and then left the sangha with several Buddhist monks and formed a rival sect. This sect is said to have been supported by King Ajatashatru.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The Pali texts depict Devadatta as plotting to kill the Buddha, but these plans all fail.Template:Sfnp They depict the Buddha as sending his two chief disciples (Sariputta and Moggallana) to this schismatic community in order to convince the monks who left with Devadatta to return.Template:Sfnp
All the major early Buddhist Vinaya texts depict Devadatta as a divisive figure who attempted to split the Buddhist community, but they disagree on what issues he disagreed with the Buddha on. The Sthavira texts generally focus on "five points" which are seen as excessive ascetic practices, while the Mahāsaṅghika Vinaya speaks of a more comprehensive disagreement, which has Devadatta alter the discourses as well as monastic discipline.<ref>Bhikkhu Sujato (2012), "Why Devadatta Was No Saint, A critique of Reginald Ray's thesis of the 'condemned saint'" Template:Webarchive</ref>
At around the same time of Devadatta's schism, there was also war between Ajatashatru's Kingdom of Magadha, and Kosala, led by an elderly king Pasenadi.Template:Sfnp Ajatashatru seems to have been victorious, a turn of events the Buddha is reported to have regretted.Template:Sfnp
Last days and parinirvanaEdit
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The main narrative of the Buddha's last days, death and the events following his death is contained in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16) and its various parallels in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan.Template:Sfnp According to Anālayo, these include the Chinese Dirgha Agama 2, "Sanskrit fragments of the Mahaparinirvanasutra", and "three discourses preserved as individual translations in Chinese".Template:Sfnp
The Mahaparinibbana sutta depicts the Buddha's last year as a time of war. It begins with Ajatashatru's decision to make war on the Vajjika League, leading him to send a minister to ask the Buddha for advice.Template:Sfnp The Buddha responds by saying that the Vajjikas can be expected to prosper as long as they do seven things, and he then applies these seven principles to the Buddhist Sangha,Template:Efn showing that he is concerned about its future welfare.
The Buddha says that the Sangha will prosper as long as they "hold regular and frequent assemblies, meet in harmony, do not change the rules of training, honour their superiors who were ordained before them, do not fall prey to worldly desires, remain devoted to forest hermitages, and preserve their personal mindfulness". He then gives further lists of important virtues to be upheld by the Sangha.Template:Sfnp
The early texts depict how the Buddha's two chief disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana, died just before the Buddha's death.Template:Sfnp The Mahaparinibbana depicts the Buddha as experiencing illness during the last months of his life but initially recovering. It depicts him as stating that he cannot promote anyone to be his successor. When Ānanda requested this, the Mahaparinibbana records his response as follows:Template:Sfnp
<templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
Ananda, why does the Order of monks expect this of me? I have taught the Dhamma, making no distinction of "inner" and " outer": the Tathagata has no "teacher's fist" (in which certain truths are held back). If there is anyone who thinks: "I shall take charge of the Order", or "the Order is under my leadership", such a person would have to make arrangements about the Order. The Tathagata does not think in such terms. Why should the Tathagata make arrangements for the Order? I am now old, worn out...I have reached the term of life, I am turning eighty years of age. Just as an old cart is made to go by being held together with straps, so the Tathagata's body is kept going by being bandaged up...Therefore, Ananda, you should live as islands unto yourselves, being your own refuge, seeking no other refuge; with the Dhamma as an island, with the Dhamma as your refuge, seeking no other refuge... Those monks who in my time or afterwards live thus, seeking an island and a refuge in themselves and in the Dhamma and nowhere else, these zealous ones are truly my monks and will overcome the darkness (of rebirth).{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
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After travelling and teaching some more, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his death and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Bhikkhu Mettanando and Oskar von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.Template:Sfnp<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms. The Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.Template:Sfnp Modern scholars also disagree on this topic, arguing both for pig's flesh or some kind of plant or mushroom that pigs like to eat.Template:Efn Whatever the case, none of the sources which mention the last meal attribute the Buddha's sickness to the meal itself.Template:Sfnp
As per the Mahaparinibbana sutta, after the meal with Cunda, the Buddha and his companions continued travelling until he was too weak to continue and had to stop at Kushinagar, where Ānanda had a resting place prepared in a grove of Sala trees.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp After announcing to the sangha at large that he would soon be passing away to final Nirvana, the Buddha ordained one last novice into the order personally. His name was Subhadda.Template:Sfnp He then repeated his final instructions to the sangha, which was that the Dhamma and Vinaya was to be their teacher after his death. Then he asked if anyone had any doubts about the teaching, but nobody did.Template:Sfnp The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All saṅkhāras decay. Strive for the goal with diligence (appamāda)" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā').Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
He then entered his final meditation and died, reaching what is known as parinirvana (final nirvana; instead of a person being reborn, "the five aggregates of physical and mental phenomena that constitute a being cease to occur"Template:Sfn). The Mahaparinibbana reports that in his final meditation he entered the four dhyanas consecutively, then the four immaterial attainments and finally the meditative dwelling known as nirodha-samāpatti, before returning to the fourth dhyana right at the moment of death.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Posthumous eventsEdit
Template:See also According to the Mahaparinibbana sutta, the Mallians of Kushinagar spent the days following the Buddha's death honouring his body with flowers, music and scents.Template:Sfnp The sanghaTemplate:Efn waited until the eminent elder Mahākassapa arrived to pay his respects before cremating the body.Template:Sfnp
The Buddha's body was then cremated and the remains, including his bones, were kept as relics and they were distributed among various north Indian kingdoms like Magadha, Shakya and Koliya.Template:Sfnp These relics were placed in monuments or mounds called stupas, a common funerary practice at the time. Centuries later they would be exhumed and enshrined by Ashoka into many new stupas around the Mauryan realm.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:Sfnp Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.
According to various Buddhist sources, the First Buddhist Council was held shortly after the Buddha's death to collect, recite and memorize the teachings. Mahākassapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the council. However, the historicity of the traditional accounts of the first council is disputed by modern scholars.<ref>Harvey, Peter (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (PDF) (2nd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 88, Template:ISBN</ref>
Teachings and viewsEdit
HistoricityEdit
Scholarly views on the earliest teachingsEdit
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One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest versions of the Pali Canon and other texts, such as the surviving portions of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmaguptaka,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp and the Chinese Agamas.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The reliability of these sources, and the possibility of drawing out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp According to Lambert Schmithausen, there are three positions held by modern scholars of Buddhism with regard to the authenticity of the teachings contained in the Nikayas:Template:Sfnp
- "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials".Template:Efn
- "Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism".Template:Efn
- "Cautious optimism in this respect".Template:Efn
Scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne and A.K. Warder hold that these Early Buddhist Texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the Buddha.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp<ref name=":1" /> Richard Gombrich argues that since the content of the earliest texts "presents such originality, intelligence, grandeur and—most relevantly—coherence...it is hard to see it as a composite work." Thus he concludes they are "the work of one genius".Template:Sfnp Peter Harvey also agrees that "much" of the Pali Canon "must derive from his [the Buddha's] teachings".<ref>Harvey, Peter (1990). "An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices", p. 3. Introduction to Religion. Cambridge University Press.</ref> Likewise, A. K. Warder has written that "there is no evidence to suggest that it [the shared teaching of the early schools] was formulated by anyone other than the Buddha and his immediate followers."Template:Sfnp According to Alexander Wynne, "the internal evidence of the early Buddhist literature proves its historical authenticity."<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Other scholars of Buddhist studies have disagreed with the mostly positive view that the early Buddhist texts reflect the teachings of the historical Buddha, arguing that some teachings contained in the early texts are the authentic teachings of the Buddha, but not others. Ainslie Embree writes that many sermons credited to the Buddha are the works of later teachers, so there is considerable doubt about his original message.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> According to Tilmann Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn According to Tilmann Vetter, the earliest core of the Buddhist teachings is the meditative practice of dhyāna,Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn but "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition only at a later date.
He posits that the Fourth Noble Truths, the Eightfold path and Dependent Origination, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight".Template:Sfnp Lambert Schmithausen similarly argues that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the four dhyānas, is a later addition.Template:Sfnp Johannes Bronkhorst also argues that the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".Template:Sfnp
Edward Conze argued that the attempts of European scholars to reconstruct the original teachings of the Buddha were "all mere guesswork".<ref>Conze, Edward (2000). "Buddhism: A Short History". From Buddhism to Sufism Series. Oneworld.</ref>
Core teachingsEdit
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A number of teachings and practices are deemed essential to Buddhism, including: the samyojana (fetters, chains or bounds), that is, the sankharas ("formations"), the kleshas (unwholesome mental states), including the three poisons, and the āsavas ("influx, canker"), that perpetuate [[Samsara (Buddhism)|saTemplate:IASTsāra]], the repeated cycle of becoming; the six sense bases and the five aggregates, which describe the process from sense contact to consciousness which lead to this bondage to saTemplate:IASTsāra; dependent origination, which describes this process, and its reversal, in detail; and the Middle Way, summarized by the later tradition in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, which prescribes how this bondage can be reversed.
According to N. Ross Reat, the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's Śālistamba Sūtra share these basic teachings and practices.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada Majjhima Nikaya and Sarvastivada Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines.Template:Sfnp Likewise, Richard Salomon has written that the doctrines found in the Gandharan Manuscripts are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
SamsaraEdit
All beings have deeply entrenched samyojana (fetters, chains or bounds), that is, the sankharas ("formations"), kleshas (unwholesome mental states), including the three poisons, and āsavas ("influx, canker"), that perpetuate [[Samsara (Buddhism)|saTemplate:IASTsāra]], the repeated cycle of becoming and rebirth. According to the Pali suttas, the Buddha stated that "this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving."Template:Sfnp In the Dutiyalokadhammasutta sutta (AN 8:6) the Buddha explains how "eight worldly winds" "keep the world turning around [...] Gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain". He then explains how the difference between a noble (arya) person and an uninstructed worldling is that a noble person reflects on and understands the impermanence of these conditions.Template:Sfnp
This cycle of becoming is characterized by dukkha,Template:Sfnp commonly referred to as "suffering", dukkha is more aptly rendered as "unsatisfactoriness" or "unease". It is the unsatisfactoriness and unease that comes with a life dictated by automatic responses and habituated selfishness,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp and the unsatifacories of expecting enduring happiness from things which are impermanent, unstable and thus unreliable.Template:Sfnp The ultimate noble goal should be liberation from this cycle.Template:Sfnp
Samsara is dictated by karma, which is an impersonal natural law, similar to how certain seeds produce certain plants and fruits.Template:Sfnp Karma is not the only cause for one's conditions, as the Buddha listed various physical and environmental causes alongside karma.Template:Sfnp The Buddha's teaching of karma differed to that of the Jains and Brahmins, in that on his view, karma is primarily mental intention (as opposed to mainly physical action or ritual acts).Template:Sfnp The Buddha is reported to have said "By karma I mean intention."Template:Sfnp Richard Gombrich summarizes the Buddha's view of karma as follows: "all thoughts, words, and deeds derive their moral value, positive or negative, from the intention behind them".Template:Sfnp
The six sense bases and the five aggregatesEdit
The āyatana (six sense bases) and the five skandhas (aggregates) describe how sensory contact leads to attachment and dukkha. The six sense bases are eye and sight, ear and sound, nose and odour, tongue and taste, body and touch, and mind and thoughts. Together they create the input from which we create our world or reality, "the all". This process takes place through the five skandhas, "aggregates", "groups", "heaps", five groups of physical and mental processes,Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp namely form (or material image, impression) (Template:Transliteration), sensations (or feelings, received from form) (Template:Transliteration), perceptions (Template:Transliteration), mental activity or formations (Template:Transliteration), consciousness (Template:Transliteration).<ref name="stevenemmanuel587">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Skandha Template:Webarchive Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref><ref name="Aggregates">Template:Cite journal</ref> They form part of other Buddhist teachings and lists, such as dependent origination, and explain how sensory input ultimately leads to bondage to samsara by the mental defilements.
Dependent OriginationEdit
In the early texts, the process of the arising of dukkha is explicated through the teaching of dependent origination,Template:Sfnp which says that everything that exists or occurs is dependent on conditioning factors.Template:Sfnp The most basic formulation of dependent origination is given in the early texts as: 'It being thus, this comes about' (Pali: evam sati idam hoti).Template:Sfnp This can be taken to mean that certain phenomena only arise when there are other phenomena present, thus their arising is "dependent" on other phenomena.Template:Sfnp
The philosopher Mark Siderits has outlined the basic idea of the Buddha's teaching of Dependent Origination of dukkha as follows:
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given the existence of a fully functioning assemblage of psycho-physical elements (the parts that make up a sentient being), ignorance concerning the three characteristics of sentient existence—suffering, impermanence and non-self—will lead, in the course of normal interactions with the environment, to appropriation (the identification of certain elements as 'I' and 'mine'). This leads in turn to the formation of attachments, in the form of desire and aversion, and the strengthening of ignorance concerning the true nature of sentient existence. These ensure future rebirth, and thus future instances of old age, disease and death, in a potentially unending cycle.Template:Sfnp{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
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In numerous early texts, this basic principle is expanded with a list of phenomena that are said to be conditionally dependent,Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn as a result of later elaborations,Template:Sfn<ref>Hajime Nakamura. The Theory of 'Dependent Origination' in its Incipient Stage in Somaratana Balasooriya, Andre Bareau, Richard Gombrich, Siri Gunasingha, Udaya Mallawarachchi, Edmund Perry (Editors) (1980) "Buddhist Studies in Honor of Walpola Rahula". London.</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Efn including Vedic cosmogenies as the basis for the first four links.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn<ref name="Kalupahana1975p6">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to Boisvert, nidana 3-10 correlate with the five skandhas.Template:Sfn According to Richard Gombrich, the twelve-fold list is a combination of two previous lists, the second list beginning with tanha, "thirst", the cause of suffering as described in the second noble truth".Template:Sfn According to Gombrich, the two lists were combined, resulting in contradictions in its reverse version.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn
AnattaEdit
The Buddha saw his analysis of dependent origination as a "Middle Way" between "eternalism" (sassatavada, the idea that some essence exists eternally) and "annihilationism" (ucchedavada, the idea that we go completely out of existence at death).Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp in this view, persons are just a causal series of impermanent psycho-physical elements,Template:Sfnp which are anatta, without an independent or permanent self.Template:Sfnp The Buddha instead held that all things in the world of our experience are transient and that there is no unchanging part to a person.Template:Sfnp According to Richard Gombrich, the Buddha's position is simply that "everything is process".Template:Sfnp
The Buddha's arguments against an unchanging self rely on the scheme of the five skandhas, as can be seen in the Pali Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (and its parallels in Gandhari and Chinese).Template:Sfnp<ref>Andrew Glass, Mark Allon (2007). "Four Gandhari Samyuktagama Sutras", pp. 5, 15.</ref><ref>Mun-keat Choong (2000), "The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: A Comparative Study Based on the Sutranga Portion of the Pali Samyutta-Nikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama", Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 59.</ref> In the early texts the Buddha teaches that all five aggregates, including consciousness (viññana, which was held by Brahmins to be eternal), arise due to dependent origination.Template:Sfnp Since they are all impermanent, one cannot regard any of the psycho-physical processes as an unchanging self.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Even mental processes such as consciousness and will (cetana) are seen as being dependently originated and impermanent and thus do not qualify as a self (atman).Template:Sfnp
The Buddha saw the belief in a self as arising from our grasping at and identifying with the various changing phenomena, as well as from ignorance about how things really are.Template:Sfnp Furthermore, the Buddha held that we experience suffering because we hold on to erroneous self views.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp As Rupert Gethin explains, for the Buddha, a person is
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... a complex flow of physical and mental phenomena, but peel away these phenomena and look behind them and one just does not find a constant self that one can call one's own. My sense of self is both logically and emotionally just a label that I impose on these physical and mental phenomena in consequence of their connectedness.Template:Sfnp{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Due to this view (termed ), the Buddha's teaching was opposed to all soul theories of his time, including the Jain theory of a "jiva" ("life monad") and the Brahmanical theories of atman (Pali: atta) and purusha. All of these theories held that there was an eternal unchanging essence to a person, which was separate from all changing experiences,Template:Sfnp and which transmigrated from life to life.Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp The Buddha's anti-essentialist view still includes an understanding of continuity through rebirth, it is just the rebirth of a process (karma), not an essence like the atman.Template:Sfnp
The path to liberationEdit
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The Buddha taught a path (marga) of training to undo the samyojana, kleshas and āsavas and attain vimutti (liberation).Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp This path taught by the Buddha is depicted in the early texts (most famously in the Pali Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and its numerous parallel texts) as a "Middle Way" between sensual indulgence on one hand and mortification of the body on the other.Template:Sfnp
A common presentation of the core structure of Buddha's teaching found in the early texts is that of the Four Noble Truths,Template:Sfnp which refers to the Noble Eightfold Path.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn According to Gethin, another common summary of the path to awakening wisely used in the early texts is "abandoning the hindrances, practice of the four establishments of mindfulness and development of the awakening factors".Template:Sfnp
According to Rupert Gethin, in the Nikayas and Agamas, the Buddha's path is mainly presented in a cumulative and gradual "step by step" process, such as that outlined in the Samaññaphala Sutta.Template:SfnpTemplate:Efn Other early texts like the Upanisa sutta (SN 12.23), present the path as reversions of the process of Dependent Origination.<ref>Bodhi, Bhikkhu (1995). Transcendental Dependent Arising. A Translation and Exposition of the Upanisa Sutta Template:Webarchive.</ref>Template:Efn
Bhāvanā, cultivation of wholesome states, is central to the Buddha's path. Common practices to this goal, which are shared by most of these early presentations of the path, include sila (ethical training), restraint of the senses (indriyasamvara), sati (mindfulness) and sampajañña (clear awareness), and the practice of dhyana, the cumulative development of wholesome statesTemplate:Sfnp leading to a "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)".Template:Sfnp Dhyana is preceded and supported by various aspects of the path such as sense restraintTemplate:Sfnp and mindfulness, which is elaborated in the satipatthana-scheme, as taught in the Pali Satipatthana Sutta and the sixteen elements of Anapanasati, as taught in the Anapanasati Sutta.Template:Efn
Jain and Brahmanical influencesEdit
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In various texts, the Buddha is depicted as having studied under two named teachers, Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta. According to Alexander Wynne, these were yogis who taught doctrines and practices similar to those in the Upanishads.Template:Sfnp According to Johannes Bronkhorst, the "meditation without breath and reduced intake of food" which the Buddha practiced before his awakening are forms of asceticism which are similar to Jain practices.Template:Sfnp
According to Richard Gombrich, the Buddha's teachings on Karma and Rebirth are a development of pre-Buddhist themes that can be found in Jain and Brahmanical sources, like the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.Template:Sfnp Likewise, samsara, the idea that we are trapped in cycles of rebirth and that we should seek liberation from them through non-harming (ahimsa) and spiritual practices, pre-dates the Buddha and was likely taught in early Jainism.Template:Sfnp According to K.R. Norman, the Buddhist teaching of the three marks of existenceTemplate:Efn may also reflect Upanishadic or other influences .Template:Sfnp The Buddhist practice called Brahma-vihara may have also originated from a Brahmanic term;Template:Sfnp but its usage may have been common in the sramana traditions.Template:Sfnp
Homeless lifeEdit
The early Buddhist texts depict the Buddha as promoting the life of a homeless and celibate "sramana", or mendicant, as the ideal way of life for the practice of the path.Template:Sfnp He taught that mendicants or "beggars" (bhikkhus) were supposed to give up all possessions and to own just a begging bowl and three robes.Template:Sfnp As part of the Buddha's monastic discipline, they were also supposed to rely on the wider lay community for the basic necessities (mainly food, clothing, and lodging).Template:Sfnp
The Buddha's teachings on monastic discipline were preserved in the various Vinaya collections of the different early schools.Template:Sfnp
Buddhist monastics, which included both monks and nuns, were supposed to beg for their food, were not allowed to store up food or eat after noon and they were not allowed to use gold, silver or any valuables.<ref>Heirman, Ann (2019). "Vinaya rules for monks and nuns".</ref>Template:Sfnp
SocietyEdit
Critique of BrahmanismEdit
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According to Bronkhorst, "the bearers of [the Brahmanical] tradition, the Brahmins, did not occupy a dominant position in the area in which the Buddha preached his message."Template:Sfn Nevertheless, the Buddha was acquainted with Brahmanism, and in the early Buddhist Texts, the Buddha references Brahmanical devices. For example, in Samyutta Nikaya 111, Majjhima Nikaya 92 and Vinaya i 246 of the Pali Canon, the Buddha praises the Agnihotra as the foremost sacrifice and the Sāvitrī meter as the foremost meter.Template:Efn In general, the Buddha critiques the animal sacrifices and social system on certain key points.
The Brahmin caste held that the Vedas were eternal revealed (sruti) texts. The Buddha, on the other hand, did not accept that these texts had any divine authority or value.<ref name=Tola&Dragonetti>Tola, Fernando. Dragonetti, Carmen (2009). "Brahamanism and Buddhism: Two Antithetic Conceptions of Society in Ancient India". p. 26: "This also implied the denial of the Shruti provided with characteristics which grant it the status of a substance. All this carried with itself also the negation of the authority of all the sacred texts of Brahmanism. Buddhism does not acknowledge to them any value as ultimate criterion of truth, as depository of the norms which regulate man's conduct as a member of society and in his relations with the Gods. Buddhism ignores the Shruti, the very foundation of Brahmanism."</ref>
The Buddha also did not see the Brahmanical rites and practices as useful for spiritual advancement. For example, in the Udāna, the Buddha points out that ritual bathing does not lead to purity: only "truth and morality" lead to purity.Template:Efn He especially critiqued animal sacrifice as taught in Vedas.<ref name=Tola&Dragonetti /> The Buddha contrasted his teachings, which were taught openly to all people, with that of the Brahmins', who kept their mantras secret.Template:Efn
The Buddha also critiqued the Brahmins' claims of superior birth and the idea that different castes and bloodlines were inherently pure or impure, noble or ignoble.<ref name=Tola&Dragonetti />
In the Vasettha sutta the Buddha argues that the main difference among humans is not birth but their actions and occupations.Template:Sfnp According to the Buddha, one is a "Brahmin" (i.e., divine, like Brahma) only to the extent that one has cultivated virtue.Template:Efn Because of this the early texts report that he proclaimed: "Not by birth one is a Brahman, not by birth one is a non-Brahman; – by moral action one is a Brahman"<ref name=Tola&Dragonetti />
The Aggañña Sutta explains all classes or varnas can be good or bad and gives a sociological explanation for how they arose, against the Brahmanical idea that they are divinely ordained.Template:Sfnp According to Kancha Ilaiah, the Buddha posed the first contract theory of society.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> The Buddha's teaching then is a single universal moral law, one Dharma valid for everybody, which is opposed to the Brahmanic ethic founded on "one's own duty" (svadharma) which depends on caste.<ref name=Tola&Dragonetti /> Because of this, all castes including untouchables were welcome in the Buddhist order and when someone joined, they renounced all caste affiliation.<ref>Mrozik, Susanne. "Upali" in MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, pg. 870.</ref><ref>Kancha Ilaiah, "God as Political Philosopher: Buddha's Challenge to Brahminism" p. 169</ref>
Socio-political teachingsEdit
The early texts depict the Buddha as giving a deflationary account of the importance of politics to human life. Politics is inevitable and is probably even necessary and helpful, but it is also a tremendous waste of time and effort, as well as being a prime temptation to allow ego to run rampant. Buddhist political theory denies that people have a moral duty to engage in politics except to a very minimal degree (pay the taxes, obey the laws, maybe vote in the elections), and it actively portrays engagement in politics and the pursuit of enlightenment as being conflicting paths in life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In the Aggañña Sutta, the Buddha teaches a history of how monarchy arose which according to Matthew J. Moore is "closely analogous to a social contract". The Aggañña Sutta also provides a social explanation of how different classes arose, in contrast to the Vedic views on social caste.<ref name=":7">Template:Cite journal</ref>
Other early texts like the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta and the Mahāsudassana Sutta focus on the figure of the righteous wheel turning leader (Cakkavatti). This ideal leader is one who promotes Dharma through his governance. He can only achieve his status through moral purity and must promote morality and Dharma to maintain his position. According to the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta, the key duties of a Cakkavatti are: "establish guard, ward, and protection according to Dhamma for your own household, your troops, your nobles, and vassals, for Brahmins and householders, town and country folk, ascetics and Brahmins, for beasts and birds. let no crime prevail in your kingdom, and to those who are in need, give property."<ref name=":7" /> The sutta explains the injunction to give to the needy by telling how a line of wheel-turning monarchs falls because they fail to give to the needy, and thus the kingdom falls into infighting as poverty increases, which then leads to stealing and violence.Template:Efn
In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the Buddha outlines several principles that he promoted among the Vajjika tribal federation, which had a quasi-republican form of government. He taught them to "hold regular and frequent assemblies", live in harmony and maintain their traditions. The Buddha then goes on to promote a similar kind of republican style of government among the Buddhist Sangha, where all monks had equal rights to attend open meetings and there would be no single leader, since The Buddha also chose not to appoint one.<ref name=":7" /> Some scholars have argued that this fact signals that the Buddha preferred a republican form of government, while others disagree with this position.<ref name=":7" />
Worldly happinessEdit
As noted by Bhikkhu Bodhi, the Buddha as depicted in the Pali suttas does not exclusively teach a world-transcending goal, but also teaches laypersons how to achieve worldly happiness (sukha).Template:Sfnp
According to Bodhi, the "most comprehensive" of the suttas that focus on how to live as a layperson is the Sigālovāda Sutta (DN 31). This sutta outlines how a layperson behaves towards six basic social relationships: "parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and friend, employer and workers, lay follower and religious guides".Template:Sfnp This Pali text also has parallels in Chinese and in Sanskrit fragments.<ref>Pannasiri, Bhadanta (1950). "Sigālovāda-Sutta", Visva-Bharati Annals, 3: 150–228.</ref><ref>Martini, Giuliana (2013). "Bodhisattva Texts, Ideologies and Rituals in Khotan in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries", in Buddhism among the Iranian Peoples of Central Asia, M. De Chiara et al. (ed.), 11–67, Wien: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.</ref>
In another sutta (Dīghajāṇu Sutta, AN 8.54) the Buddha teaches two types of happiness. First, there is the happiness visible in this very life. The Buddha states that four things lead to this happiness: "The accomplishment of persistent effort, the accomplishment of protection, good friendship, and balanced living."Template:Sfnp Similarly, in several other suttas, the Buddha teaches on how to improve family relationships, particularly on the importance of filial love and gratitude as well as marital well-being.Template:Sfnp
Regarding the happiness of the next life, the Buddha (in the Dīghajāṇu Sutta) states that the virtues which lead to a good rebirth are: faith (in the Buddha and the teachings), moral discipline, especially keeping the five precepts, generosity, and wisdom (knowledge of the arising and passing of things).Template:Sfnp
According to the Buddha of the suttas then, achieving a good rebirth is based on cultivating wholesome or skillful (kusala) karma, which leads to a good result, and avoiding unwholesome (akusala) karma. A common list of good karmas taught by the Buddha is the list of ten courses of action (kammapatha) as outlined in MN 41 Saleyyaka Sutta (and its Chinese parallel in SĀ 1042).Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
Good karma is also termed merit (puñña), and the Buddha outlines three bases of meritorious actions: giving, moral discipline and meditation (as seen in AN 8:36).Template:Sfnp
Physical characteristicsEdit
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Early sources depict the Buddha's appearance as similar to other Buddhist monks. Various discourses describe how he "cut off his hair and beard" when renouncing the world. Likewise, Digha Nikaya 3 has a Brahmin describe the Buddha as a shaved or bald (mundaka) man.<ref>Olivelle, Patrick (1974), "The Origin and the Early Development of Buddhist Monachism", p. 19.</ref> Digha Nikaya 2 also describes how king Ajatashatru is unable to tell which of the monks is the Buddha when approaching the sangha and must ask his minister to point him out. Likewise, in MN 140, a mendicant who sees himself as a follower of the Buddha meets the Buddha in person but is unable to recognize him.<ref>Mazard, Eisel (2010). "The Buddha was bald", Template:Webarchive New Mandala.</ref>
The Buddha is also described as being handsome and with a clear complexion (Digha I:115; Anguttara I:181), at least in his youth. In old age, however, he is described as having a stooped body, with slack and wrinkled limbs.Template:Sfnp
Various Buddhist texts attribute to the Buddha a series of extraordinary physical characteristics, known as "the 32 Signs of the Great Man" (Skt. mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa).
According to Anālayo, when they first appear in the Buddhist texts, these physical marks were initially held to be imperceptible to the ordinary person, and required special training to detect. Later though, they are depicted as being visible by regular people and as inspiring faith in the Buddha.Template:Sfnp
These characteristics are described in the Digha Nikaya's Template:IAST (D, I:142).Template:Sfnp
Śākyamuni Buddha in MahāyānaEdit
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the figure of Śākyamuni Buddha (Ch: 釋迦牟尼佛, Shìjiāmóunífó) retains his central role as the historical Buddha who lived and taught in ancient India. However, Mahāyāna developments introduce significant reinterpretations of his nature, activities, and metaphysical status, presenting a cosmic, timeless identity. Unlike the more human-centered portrayals, Mahāyāna works present Śākyamuni as a transcendent being of inconceivable qualities, who operates within a vast cosmological framework.<ref name=":02">Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse (2009), Interpreting the Lotus Sutra; in: Teiser, Stephen F.; Stone, Jacqueline Ilyse; eds. Readings of the Lotus Sutra, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 1–61, Template:ISBN</ref><ref>Guang Xing (2005). The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory. Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp. 1, 85</ref> Moreover, Mahāyāna sutras often depict Śākyamuni preaching in vast assemblies composed of bodhisattvas, gods, other Buddhas, and beings from other realms. These assemblies vastly exceed the human scale of early canonical suttas.
In many Mahāyāna scriptures, Śākyamuni is presented as the preacher of profound Mahāyāna teachings intended for advanced bodhisattvas. In contrast to the mainstream Nikāya/Āgama presentations of Śākyamuni as a renunciant teacher, Mahāyāna texts emphasize his boundless wisdom, vast power, and infinite compassion. Furthermore, according to Mahāyāna sutras, Śākyamuni teaches myriad teachings according to the capacities of beings. Thus, what appears to be the classic teaching of the sravakayana path taught in the Nikāyas/Āgamas is considered a provisional teaching, which is preparatory to the ultimate Mahāyāna Dharma. The Lotus Sūtra develops this idea most explicitly, portraying Śākyamuni as a master teacher who uses various skillful means (upaya) to guide beings to the One Vehicle (ekayāna) which leads to Buddhahood for all.<ref name=":02" />
While Śākyamuni is the central Buddha of our world (often called Sahā), Mahāyāna cosmology includes countless Buddhas presiding over various buddhafields. Śākyamuni is often depicted as one among an infinite assembly of Buddhas, yet his salvific function remains paramount in many texts.<ref name="Williams-2008f">Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 21.</ref> The Avataṃsaka Sūtra also presents Śākyamuni as inseparable from the cosmic Buddha Vairocana. The Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra (a part of the Avataṃsaka) describes Śākyamuni's activities as pervading all worlds and times, manifesting various forms for the sake of sentient beings. He is sometimes seen as a Buddha who simultaneously appears in countless forms (bodhisattvas, teachers, even ordinary beings), subverting any fixed notion of a singular historical presence.<ref name="Williams, Paul page 122">Template:Cite book</ref>
In contrast with early Buddhist views that emphasize the Buddha's struggle on the spiritual path, Mahāyāna scriptures, such as the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and Lotus Sūtra, portray Śākyamuni as already fully enlightened countless eons ago. Thus, his attainment under the Bodhi tree is also a didactic device (upaya), a demonstration for the sake of others rather than an actual personal breakthrough from delusion to awakening. This Śākyamuni who appeared to be born as a prince in the Śākya clan in India is understood to be a nirmāṇakāya, a docetic emanation. His apparent human birth, life, attainment of enlightenment, and death were skillful manifestations designed to teach and guide sentient beings, rather than literal events in the life of a finite being.<ref name="Williams-2008g">Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 27.</ref> The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra reinforces this doctrine by denying that the Buddha truly enters parinirvāṇa. His apparent death is merely another teaching device. In fact, he remains eternally active, and his dharma-body (dharmakāya) continues to benefit beings.<ref>Radich, Michael (2015), The Mahāparinivāṇa-mahasūtra and the Emergence of Tathagatagarba Doctrine (Hamburg Buddhist Studies Vol. 5), pp. 130-131. amburg University Press</ref> These texts collectively assert that the true Śākyamuni is eternal, unconditioned, and ever-present, even though he assumes various forms adapted to the spiritual capacities of those he teaches.
A central doctrinal framework for understanding Śākyamuni in Mahāyāna thought is the trikāya ("triple body") doctrine, which holds that Buddhas have a triune body: (1) Nirmāṇakāya ("emanation body"), the body which appears in the world, (2) Saṃbhogakāya ("enjoyment body"), a resplendent supranatural form, and (3) Dharmakāya, the formless body of ultimate reality.<ref>Williams and Tribe (2002), pp. 172-175.</ref> Through this framework, the "historical" Śākyamuni is not merely a historical teacher, but a cosmic being whose appearance on earth is but one of countless manifestations. His true identity is that of the saṃbhoga- and dharmakāyas, which extend beyond the limits of space and time. Not limited to a single location or lifespan, his bodies permeate the entire cosmos, appearing in innumerable worlds. In this view, the universe itself is Śākyamuni's pure land, gradually being purified and transformed through his spiritual presence and teaching. This aligns with Mahāyāna cosmology in which Buddhas are not absent from the world and never abandon it due to their great compassion.<ref name=":72">Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 21-27.</ref>
In other religionsEdit
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HinduismEdit
{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B=
Template:Ambox }}{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} After the lifetime of the Buddha the Hindu synthesis emerged, between 500Template:Sfn–200Template:Sfn BCE and Template:Circa,Template:Sfn under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.Template:Sfn In response to the success of Buddhism, Gautama was incorporated into Vaishnavism as the 9th avatar of Vishnu.<ref name="google260" />Template:SfnpTemplate:SfnpTemplate:Efn The adoption of the Buddha as an incarnation began at approximately the same time as Hinduism began to predominate and Buddhism to decline in India, and the inclusion is ambiguous, as the co-option into a list of avatars may be seen as an aspect of Hindu efforts to decisively weaken Buddhist power and appeal in India. While his inclusion has been rejected by some traditionalists, many modern Hindus include the Buddha in their conception of Hinduism.<ref name=varieties-religious>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and the concepts of Brahman-Atman.<ref name="sep">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref><ref>Sushil Mittal & Gene Thursby (2004), The Hindu World, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pp. 729–730</ref><ref>C. Sharma (2013), A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, p. 66</ref> Consequently, Buddhism is generally classified as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so"Template:Efn) in contrast to the six orthodox schools of Hinduism.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Sfnp
IslamEdit
Buddhist ideas in Muslim culture can be traced to the presence of Buddhism in Transoxiana and K̲h̲urāsān.<ref>Monnot, G. (2012). Sumaniyya. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7186</ref> Buddhism lasted from the 2nd century B.C. to the 8th century, there, until it dwindled in the face of Zoroastrianism, the Sassanide state religion.<ref>Monnot, G. (2012). Sumaniyya. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7186</ref> Remnants of Buddhism remains until the 9th century<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 27</ref> and the lasting impact of Buddhist influence is reflected in Muslim arts and poetry of Islamic Persia.<ref>Monnot, G. (2012). Sumaniyya. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7186</ref> However, in the 9th century, the intellectual distance between Buddhism and Islam increased drastically.<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 27</ref> Only centuries later, during Turco-Mongol governance, the attention of Muslim scholars shifted towards Buddhism again.<ref>Monnot, G. (2012). Sumaniyya. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7186</ref>
In Islamic sources, Buddha is called Budd (Persian: but)<ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref> or Shakyamuni. The former term is used in the writings of al-Jahiz, al-Mas'udi, al-Biruni, and al-Shahrastani.<ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref> The term further denotes a temple or an idol,<ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref> as many authors believed that Buddhists were idolaters.<ref>Scott, D. (1995). Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons. Numen, 42(2), 144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3270172 </ref><ref>Monnot, G. (2012). Sumaniyya. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7186</ref> They are described further as believing in the eternity of the world, the retributation of actions after life, and the appearance of Buddha in various forms.<ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref> Buddhists were referred to as sumaniyya.<ref>Monnot, G. (2012). Sumaniyya. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7186</ref>
Although Muslims had only rudimentary knowledge about Buddhism, they attempted to integrate the Buddha into their own religious history.<ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref> Ibn Hazm defines the Buddha as a person who is not born, does not eat or drink, and does not die.<ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref> The Buddha is compared to various Islamic figures by Muslim heresiologists. In his Fihrist, ibn al-Nadim reiterates three opinions from among the scholars, that the Buddha is either an angel, an ʿifrīt (demon), or a Prophet.<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 31</ref><ref>Template:Cite conference</ref> Al-Shahrastani identified Buddha with the legendary al-Khizr.<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 31</ref><ref>Template:Cite conference</ref><ref>Carra de Vaux, B. (2012). Budd. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1489</ref>
Rashid al-Din Hamadani's (1247–1318) Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh dedicates an entire chapter on describing Buddhist beliefs to the Ilkhanate from a Muslim viewpoint. He identifies Buddha (Shakyamuni) as a monotheistic prophet.<ref>Millward, J. A. (2013). The Silk Road: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 154-156</ref><ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 30</ref> He integrates the cyclical reappearance of the Buddha into the lineage of Islamic prophets, who likewise raise whenever a community yielded into decay and violence.<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 32</ref> In line with Islamic prophetology, Rashid al-Din emphazizes the finality of Muhammad.<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 33</ref> In order to establish Buddha's monotheism, the author retells a story from the Lalitavistara Sūtra within an Islamic framework: Accordingly, the Indian deities, Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, and Indra are prophets or angels who claim divinity for themselves and thus identified with the "people of Iblis" (ahl-i iblīs).<ref>Millward, J. A. (2013). The Silk Road: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 156</ref><ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 34</ref> When Buddha is brought to the idols and ordered to worship them, the idols bow down before Buddha instead, an idea linked to the Quranic story of angels prostrating before Adam, and the superiority of prophets over angels in Islamic theology (Kalām).<ref>Brack, J. Z. (2023). An afterlife for the Khan: Muslims, Buddhists, and sacred kingship in Mongol Iran and Eurasia. Univ of California Press. p. 33</ref>
Muhammad Hamidullah (1908 – December 2002) identifies Buddha as a prophet based on the Quran Surah 95:1. The verse takes an oath by a fig-tree, followed by Mount Sinai. Since Moses received his revelation on Mount Sinai, the fig-tree features as the location of revelation for another prophet, identified with Buddha, since Buddha reached enlightenment under a fig-tree.Template:Sfnp He is further identified with the prophet Dhu al-Kifl, supposedly related to his birthplace in Kapila-Vastu.Template:Sfnp<ref>Ramli, A. F., Awang, J., & Ab Rahman, Z. (2018). Muslim scholar’s discourse on Buddhism: a literature on Buddha’s position. In SHS Web of Conferences (Vol. 53, p. 04001). EDP Sciences.</ref> He furthermore compares Buddha's teachings with that of Muhammad: The teaching of the omnipresence of dukkha, as formulated in the Four Noble Truths, is compared to 90:04, stating that "humans are created in "pain toil and trial"".Template:Sfnp Similarly, by receiving his revelation, Muhammad would have entered into a state of peace (salam) and, as per hadith, his devilish nature surrendered to islam (aslama shayṭānī).Template:Sfnp
ChristianityEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}}
The Christian saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.Template:Sfnp The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.Template:Sfnp Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast-day 27 November)—though not in the Roman Missal—and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).
Other religionsEdit
In the Baháʼí Faith, Buddha is regarded as one of the Manifestations of God.<ref name="q800">Template:Cite book</ref>
Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Laozi.Template:Sfnp
In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism, the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.<ref>Barnstone W & Meyer M (2009). The Gnostic Bible: Gnostic texts of mystical wisdom from the ancient and medieval worlds. Shambhala Publications: Boston & London.</ref>
In Sikhism, Buddha is mentioned as the 23rd avatar of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Artistic depictionsEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The earliest artistic depictions of the Buddha found at Bharhut and Sanchi are aniconic and symbolic. During this early aniconic period, the Buddha is depicted by other objects or symbols, such as an empty throne, a riderless horse, footprints, a Dharma wheel or a Bodhi tree.Template:Sfnp Since aniconism precludes single devotional figures, most representations are of narrative scenes from his life. These continued to be very important after the Buddha's person could be shown, alongside larger statues. The art at Sanchi also depicts Jataka tales, narratives of the Buddha in his past lives.Template:Sfnp
Other styles of Indian Buddhist art depict the Buddha in human form, either standing, sitting crossed legged (often in the Lotus Pose) or lying down on one side. Iconic representations of the Buddha became particularly popular and widespread after the first century CE.Template:Sfnp Some of these depictions, particularly those of Gandharan Buddhism and Central Asian Buddhism, were influenced by Hellenistic art, a style known as Greco-Buddhist art.Template:Sfnp The subsequently influenced the art of East Asian Buddhist images, as well as those of Southeast Asian Theravada Buddhism.
Gallery showing different Buddha stylesEdit
- A Royal Couple Visits the Buddha, from railing of the Bharhut Stupa, Shunga dynasty, early 2nd century BC, Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, India, sandstone - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC05134.JPG
A Royal Couple Visits the Buddha, from railing of the Bharhut Stupa, Shunga dynasty, early 2nd century BC.
- Adoration of the Diamond Throne and the Bodhi Tree Bharhut relief.jpg
Adoration of the Diamond Throne and the Bodhi Tree, Bharhut.
- Descent of the Buddha from the Trayastrimsa Heaven Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg
Descent of the Buddha from the Trayastrimsa Heaven, Sanchi Stupa No. 1.
- Miracle at Kapilavastu Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air with only path visible Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg
The Buddha's Miracle at Kapilavastu, Sanchi Stupa 1.
- Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at Rajagriha, the visit of Bimbisara.jpg
Bimbisara visiting the Buddha (represented as empty throne) at the Bamboo garden in Rajagriha
- Andhra pradesh, la grande dipartita, da regione di amaravati, II sec.JPG
The great departure with riderless horse, Amaravati, 2nd century CE.
- MaraAssault.jpg
The Assault of Mara, Amaravati, 2nd century CE.
- Isapur Buddha.jpg
Isapur Buddha, one of the earliest physical depictions of the Buddha, Template:Circa.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Art of Mathura
- The Buddha attended by Indra at Indrasala Cave, Mathura 50-100 CE.jpg
The Buddha attended by Indra at Indrasala Cave, Mathura 50-100 CE.
- Buddha Preaching in Tushita Heaven. Amaravati, Satavahana period, 2d century AD. Indian Museum, Calcutta.jpg
Buddha Preaching in Tushita Heaven. Amaravati, Satavahana period, 2nd century CE. Indian Museum, Kolkata.
- Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg
Standing Buddha from Gandhara.
- Berenike Buddha (drawing).jpg
The Berenike Buddha, discovered in Berenice, Egypt, 2nd century CE.
- BuddhaTriadAndKushanCouple.JPG
Kushan period Buddha Triad.
- Buddha Statue, Sanchi 01.jpg
Buddha statue from Sanchi.
- Four Scenes from the Life of the Buddha - Birth of the Buddha - Kushan dynasty, late 2nd to early 3rd century AD, Gandhara, schist - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC05128.JPG
Birth of the Buddha, Kushan dynasty, late 2nd to early 3rd century CE.
- InfantBuddhaTakingABathGandhara2ndCenturyCE.jpg
The infant Buddha taking a bath, Gandhara 2nd century CE.
- Buddha with radiate halo and mandorla.Gandhara.Met.jpg
6th century Gandharan Buddha.
- Upper Floor, Cave No. 6, Ajanta Caves - 1.jpg
Buddha at Cave No. 6, Ajanta Caves.
- Standing Buddha Installed by Buddist Monk Yasadinna - Circa 5th Century CE - Jamalpur Mound - ACCN 00-A-5 - Government Museum Mathura Golden background.jpg
Standing Buddha, Template:Circa.
- Sarnath standing Buddha 5th century CE.jpg
Sarnath standing Buddha, 5th century CE.
- British Museum - Seated Buddha (Gupta period).JPG
Seated Buddha, Gupta period.
- Gal Viharaya 02.jpg
Seated Buddha at Gal Vihara, Sri Lanka.
- Clevelandart 1914.567.jpg
Chinese Stele with Sakyamuni and Bodhisattvas, Wei period, 536 CE.
- Asuka dera daibutsu.jpg
The Shakyamuni Daibutsu Bronze, Template:Circa, Nara, Japan.
- Buddha Seguntang Palembang.jpg
Amaravati style Buddha of Srivijaya period, Palembang, Indonesia, 7th century.
- Seokguram Buddha.JPG
Korean Seokguram Cave Buddha, Template:Circa.
- Buddha Mendut.jpg
Seated Buddha Vairocana flanked by Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani of Mendut temple, Central Java, Indonesia, early 9th century.
- Stupa Borobudur.jpg
Buddha in the exposed stupa of Borobudur mandala, Central Java, Indonesia, Template:Circa.
- 023 Vairocana Buddha, 9c, Srivijaya (35212721926).jpg
Vairocana Buddha of Srivijaya style, Southern Thailand, 9th century.
- Seated Shaka Nyorai (Sakyamuni, Gautama Buddha).jpg
Seated Buddha, Japan, Heian period, 9th－10th century.
- FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg
Attack of Mara, 10th century, Dunhuang.
- Naga-enthroned Buddha - Beyond Angkor - Cleveland Museum of Art (40887945882).jpg
Cambodian Buddha with Mucalinda Nāga, Template:Circa, Banteay Chhmar, Cambodia
- Thai - Buddha at the Moment of Victory - Walters 542775.jpg
15th century Sukhothai Buddha.
- Thai - Walking Buddha - Walters 542765.jpg
15th century Sukhothai Walking Buddha.
- Sakyamuni, Lao Tzu, and Confucius - Google Art Project.jpg
Sakyamuni, Lao Tzu, and Confucius, c. from 1368 until 1644.
- Shakyamuni detail, Clevelandart 1991.9 (cropped).jpg
Chinese depiction of Shakyamuni, 1600.
- Sakyamuni Buddha on Snowy Mount, Tay Phuong pagoda, Ha Tay province, 1794 AD, lacquered wood - Vietnam National Museum of Fine Arts - Hanoi, Vietnam - DSC05083.JPG
Buddha on the snowy mountain, Vietnam, 18th century
- Shakyamuni Buddha with Avadana Legend Scenes - Google Art Project.jpg
Shakyamuni Buddha with Avadana Legend Scenes, Tibetan, 19th century
- Bodh Gaya - Wat Thai - Main Buddha Statue (9228460504).jpg
Golden Thai Buddha statue, Bodh Gaya.
- Gautama Buddha-1.jpg
Gautama statue, Shanyuan Temple, Liaoning Province, China.
- P1040704.JPG
Burmese style Buddha, Shwedagon pagoda, Yangon.
- Large Gautama Buddha statue in Buddha Park of Ravangla, Sikkim.jpg
Large Gautama Buddha statue in Buddha Park of Ravangla.
- MET DP264118 (cropped).jpg
CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In other mediaEdit
FilmsEdit
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- Buddha Dev (Life of Lord Buddha), a 1923 Indian silent film by Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, first depiction of the Buddha on film with Bhaurao Datar in the title role.<ref name="Bakker">Template:Cite book</ref>
- Prem Sanyas (The Light of Asia), a 1925 silent film, directed by Franz Osten and Himansu Rai based on Arnold's epic poem with Rai also portraying the Buddha.<ref name="Bakker" />
- Template:Nihongo, a 1952 Japanese feature film representing the life of Buddha.
- Gotoma the Buddha, a 1957 Indian documentary film directed by Rajbans Khanna and produced by Bimal Roy.<ref name="Bakker" />
- Siddhartha, a 1972 drama film by Conrad Rooks, an adaptation Hesse's novel. It stars Shashi Kapoor as Siddhartha, a contemporary of the Buddha.
- Little Buddha, a 1994 film by Bernardo Bertolucci, the film stars Keanu Reeves as Prince Siddhartha.<ref name="Bakker" />
- The Legend of Buddha, a 2004 Indian animated film by Shamboo Falke.
- Buddha's life, 2011 This animation movie is about the life of Buddha based on Pali Canon (Theravada Buddhism) and other commentaries. It was produced by members of the Buddhist community in cooperation with the Department of Religious Affairs and the National Office of Buddhism, Thailand. It is considered one of the most accurate story of the Buddha. It is almost 5 hours long and very detailed. The production took 8 years to complete (from 2003-2011).<ref>"The Life of Buddha", full animated film.</ref>
- The Life of Buddha, or Prawat Phra Phuttajao, a 2007 Thai animated feature film about the life of Gautama Buddha, based on the Tipitaka.
- Tathagatha Buddha, a 2008 Indian film by Allani Sridhar. Based on Sadguru Sivananda Murthy's book Gautama Buddha, it stars Sunil Sharma as the Buddha.<ref name="Bakker" />
- Sri Siddhartha Gautama, a 2013 Sinhalese epic biographical film based on the life of Lord Buddha.
- A Journey of Samyak Buddha, a 2013 Indian film by Praveen Damle, based on B. R. Ambedkar's 1957 Navayana book The Buddha and His Dhamma with Abhishek Urade in the title role.
TelevisionEdit
- Buddha, a 1996 Indian series which aired on Sony TV. It stars Arun Govil as the Buddha.<ref name="Bakker" />
- The Buddha 2010 PBS documentary by filmmaker David Grubin and narrated by Richard Gere.
- Buddha, a 2013 Indian drama series on Zee TV starring Himanshu Soni in the title role.
LiteratureEdit
- The Light of Asia, an 1879 epic poem by Edwin Arnold
- The Buddha and His Dhamma, a treatise on Buddha's life and philosophy, by B. R. Ambedkar
- Before He Was Buddha: The Life of Siddhartha, by Hammalawa Saddhatissa
- Buddha, a manga series that ran from 1972 to 1983 by Osamu Tezuka
- Siddhartha novel by Hermann Hesse, written in German in 1922
- Lord of Light, a novel by Roger Zelazny depicts a man in a far future Earth Colony who takes on the name and teachings of the Buddha
- Creation, a 1981 novel by Gore Vidal, includes the Buddha as one of the religious figures that the main character encounters
MusicEdit
- The Light of Asia, an 1886 oratorio by Dudley Buck based on Arnold's poem
- Karuna Nadee, a 2010 oratorio by Dinesh Subasinghe
See alsoEdit
- Buddhist pilgrimage sites
- Family of Gautama Buddha
- List of Indian philosophers
- List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed
- Miracles of Gautama Buddha
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
CitationsEdit
SourcesEdit
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Further readingEdit
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The Buddha
Early Buddhism
Buddhism general
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