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Smṛti

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Template:Short description Template:For Template:Italic title Template:Hindu scriptures

Template:Transliteration (Template:Langx, Template:IAST3, Template:Translation), also spelled Template:Transliteration or Template:Transliteration, is a body of Hindu texts representing the remembered, written tradition in Hinduism,<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/> rooted in or inspired by the Vedas.<ref name=wendydof/> Template:Transliteration works are generally attributed to a named author and were transmitted through manuscripts, in contrast to Vedic or Template:Transliteration literature, which is based on a fixed text with no specific author, and preserved through oral transmission.<ref name=wendydof>Template:Cite book</ref> Template:Transliteration are derivative, secondary works and considered less authoritative than Template:Transliteration in Hinduism, except in the Mīmāmsa school of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=jameslochtefeld>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, Template:ISBN, page 656-657</ref><ref name=shelpollock41/><ref>Template:Cite book; Quote: "smriti is classified as being based on (and therefore less authoritative than) the directly revealed, shruti, literature.";
Template:Cite book;
Template:Cite book</ref> The authority of Template:Transliteration accepted by orthodox schools is derived from that of Template:Transliteration, on which it is based.<ref name="Guénon2009">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Template:Transliteration literature is a corpus of varied texts that includes: the six Template:Transliteration (the auxiliary sciences in the Vedas), the epics (the Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration), the Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration (or Template:Transliteration), the Template:Transliteration, the Template:Transliteration, the Template:Transliteration or poetical literature, extensive Template:Transliteration (reviews and commentaries on Template:Transliteration and non-Template:Transliteration texts), and numerous Template:Transliteration (digests) covering politics, ethics (Template:Transliteration),<ref name=monierwilliams/> culture, arts and society.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti>Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130</ref><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18">Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, Template:ISBN, pages 16-18</ref>

Each Template:Transliteration text exists in many versions, with many different readings.<ref name=wendydof/> Template:Transliteration works were considered fluid and freely rewritten by anyone in ancient and medieval Hindu tradition.<ref name=wendydof/><ref name=shelpollock41>Sheldon Pollock (2011), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia (Editor: Federico Squarcini), Anthem, Template:ISBN, pages 41-58</ref>

EtymologyEdit

Template:IAST is a Sanskrit word, from the root √smṛ (स्मृ), which means the act of remembering.<ref name=monierwilliams>smRti Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref> The word is found in ancient Vaidika literature, such as in section 7.13 of the Chandogya Upanishad. In later and modern scholarly usage, the term refers to tradition, memory, as well as a vast post-Vedic canon of "tradition that is remembered".<ref name=monierwilliams/><ref name=geraldlarson/> David Brick states that the original meaning of smriti was simply tradition, and not texts.<ref>Brick, David. 2006. pp. 295-301</ref>

Smṛti is also a symbolic synonym for number 18, from the 18 scholars who are credited in Indian tradition for writing dharma-related Smṛti texts (most have been lost).<ref name=monierwilliams/> These 18 Smṛtis are namely,

  1. Atri
  2. Viṣṇu
  3. Hārīta
  4. Auśanasī
  5. Āngirasa
  6. Yama
  7. Āpastamba
  8. Saṁvartta
  9. Kātyāyana
  10. Bṛhaspati
  11. Parāśara
  12. Vyāsa
  13. Śaṅkha
  14. LikhitaTemplate:Refn
  15. Dakṣa
  16. Gautama
  17. Śātātapa
  18. Vaśiṣṭha<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

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Yājñavalkya gives the list of total 20 by adding two more Smṛtis, namely, Yājñavalkyasmṛti and Manusmṛti.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Parāśara whose name appears in this list, enumerates also twenty authors, but instead of Samvartta, Bṛhaspati, and Vyāsa, he gives the names of Kaśyapa, Bhṛgu and Prachetas.

The Vedic sage Shandilya is also credited for a Smriti text called as Shandilya Smriti. The modern scholar Brahma Dutt Shastri had compiled the text Shandilya Smriti in his six volumes series work Smriti Sandarbha.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In linguistic traditions, Smṛti is the name of a type of verse meter. In Hindu mythology,<ref>Manmatha Nath Dutt, Template:Google books</ref> Smṛti is the name of the daughter of Dharma (Template:Translation) and Medha (Template:Translation).

TextsEdit

Smṛtis represent the remembered, written tradition in Hinduism.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/> The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of derivative work. All Smṛti texts are regarded to ultimately be rooted in or inspired by Shruti.<ref name=wendydof/>

The Smṛti corpus includes, but is not limited to:<ref name="bilimoriasmrti"/><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18"/>

  1. The six Vedāngas (grammar, meter, phonetics, etymology, astronomy and rituals),<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/><ref>Stephanie Witzel and Michael Witzel (2003), Vedic Hinduism, in The Study of Hinduism (Editor: A Sharma), Template:ISBN, page 80</ref><ref>M Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, Volume 1-3, Motilal Barnarsidass, Delhi, Reprinted in 2010, Template:ISBN</ref>
  2. The Itihasa (Template:Translation), Epics (the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana),<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/><ref name=geraldlarson>Gerald Larson (1993), The Trimūrti of Smṛti in classical Indian thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 43, No. 3, pages 373-388</ref>
  3. The texts on the four proper goals or aims of human life:<ref name=tadeusz>Tadeusz Skorupski (1988), Review: Manu Swajambhuwa, Manusmryti, Czyli Traktat o Zacności; Watsjajana Mallanga, Kamasutra, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), Volume 120, Issue 1, pages 208-209</ref>
    1. Dharma: These texts discuss dharma from various religious, social, duties, morals and personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by Gautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana and Vāsiṣṭha) and Dharma-sastras (particularly Manusmṛti, Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Nāradasmṛti and Viṣṇusmṛti). At the personal dharma level, this includes many chapters of Yogasutras.
    2. Artha: Artha-related texts discuss artha from individual, social and as a compendium of economic policies, politics and laws. For example, the Arthashastra of Chanakya, the Kamandakiya Nitisara,<ref>Kamandakiya Niti Sara MN Dutt (Translator)</ref> Brihaspati Sutra,<ref>Brihaspati Sutra - Politics and Government Sanskrit Original with English translation by FW Thomas (1921)</ref> and Sukra Niti.<ref>Sukra Niti Bk Sarkar (Translator); Chapter 1 verse 43 onwards - Rules of State and Duties of Rulers; Chapter 1 verse 424 onwards - Guidelines on infrastructure for economy; Chapter 1 verse 550 onwards - Guidelines on treasury management, law and military; Chapter 2 - Functions of state officials, etc</ref> Olivelle states that most Artha-related treatises from ancient India have been lost.<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2011), Language, Texts, and Society: Explorations in Ancient Indian Culture and Religion, Anthem Press, Template:ISBN, page 174</ref>
    3. Kama: These discuss arts, emotions, love, erotics, relationships and other sciences in the pursuit of pleasure. The Kamasutra of Vātsyāyana is most well known. Others texts include Ratirahasya, Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, Ananga Ranga among others.<ref>Alan Soble (2005), Sex from Plato to Paglia, Template:ISBN, page 493</ref>
    4. Moksha: These develop and debate the nature and process of liberation, freedom and spiritual release. Major treatises on the pursuit of moksa include the later Upanishads (early Upanishads are considered Sruti literature), Vivekachudamani, and the sastras on Yoga.
  4. The Purānas (Template:Translation),<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/><ref name=geraldlarson/>
  5. The Kāvya or poetical literature,<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/>
  6. The extensive Bhasyas (reviews and commentaries on Shrutis and non-Shruti texts),<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/>
  7. The sutras and shastras of the various schools of Hindu philosophy<ref>Karl Potter (2009), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol. 1: Bibliography, and Vols. 2-8, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN; Preview - the site includes Smriti literature of Hinduism, also Buddhism and Jainism</ref>
  8. The numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, medicine (Charaka Samhita), ethics (Nitisastras),<ref name=monierwilliams/> culture, arts and society.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti/>

The structure of Smṛti textsEdit

The Smṛti texts structurally branched, over time, from so-called the "limbs of the Vedas", or auxiliary sciences for perfecting grammar and pronunciation (part of Vedāngas).<ref name=gavinflood>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 53-56</ref> For example, the attempt to perfect the art of rituals led to the science of Kalpa, which branched into three Kalpa-sūtras: Srauta-sūtras, Grhya-sūtras, and Dharma-sūtras (estimated to have been composed between 600-200 BCE).<ref>John E. Mitchiner (2000), Traditions of the Seven Rsis, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page xviii</ref> The Srauta-sutras became texts describing the perfect performance of public ceremonies (solemn community yajnas), the Grhya-sutras described perfect performance of home ceremonies and domestic rites of passage, and Dharma-sutras described jurisprudence, rights and duties of individuals in four Ashrama stages of life, and social ethics.<ref name=gavinflood/> The Dharma-sūtras themselves became the foundations for a large canon of texts, and branched off as numerous Dharma-sastra texts.<ref name=gavinflood/>

Jan Gonda states that the initial stages of Smṛti texts structurally developed in the form of a new prose genre named Sūtras, that is "aphorism, highly compact precise expression that captured the essence of a fact, principle, instruction or idea".<ref name=jangonda/> This brevity in expression, states Gonda, was likely necessitated by the fact that writing technology had not developed yet or was not in vogue, in order to store a growing mass of knowledge, and all sorts of knowledge was transferred from one generation to the next through the process of memorization, verbal recitation and listening in the 1st millennium BCE. Compressed content allowed more essential, densely structured knowledge to be memorized and verbally transferred to the next generation in ancient India.<ref name=jangonda>Jan Gonda (1977), The Ritual Sutras, in A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Template:ISBN, pages 466-474</ref>

Role of Smṛti in Hindu LawEdit

Smṛtis contribute to exposition of the Hindu Dharma but are considered less authoritative than Śrutis (the Vedic corpus that includes early Upanishads).<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. Template:ISBN, pages 656 and 461</ref>

Earliest Smṛti on Hindu Law: Dharma-sūtrasEdit

The root texts of ancient Hindu jurisprudence and law are the Dharma-sūtras. These express that Shruti, Smṛti and Acara are sources of jurisprudence and law.<ref name=donalddavis27/> The precedence of these sources is declared in the opening verses of each of the known, surviving Dharma-sūtras. For example,<ref name=donalddavis27/>

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The source of Dharma is the Veda, as well as the tradition [Smriti], and practice of those who know the Veda. – Gautama Dharma-sūtra 1.1-1.2

The Dharma is taught in each Veda, in accordance with which we will explain it. What is given in the tradition [Smriti] is the second, and the conventions of cultured people are the third. – Baudhayana Dharma-sūtra 1.1.1-1.1.4

The Dharma is set forth in the vedas and the Traditional Texts [Smriti]. When these do not address an issue, the practice of cultured people becomes authoritative. – Vāsiṣṭha Dharma-sūtra 1.4-1.5 {{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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Later Smṛti on Hindu Law: Dharma-smritiEdit

The Smṛtis, such as Manusmṛti, Naradasmṛti, Yājñavalkyasmṛti and Paraśarasmṛti, expanded this definition, as follows,

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The Yajnavalkya Smṛti includes four Vedas, six Vedangas, Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa and other sastras, in addition to the ethical conduct of the wise, as sources of knowledge and through which sacred law can be known. It explains the scope of the Dharma as follows,

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Rites, proper conduct, Dama (self-restraint), Ahimsa (non-violence), charity, self-study, work, realisation of Atman (Self, Soul) through Yoga – all these are Dharma.<ref>Yajnavalkya Smriti, Srisa Chandra Vidyarnava (Translator), The Sacred Books of the East, Vol 21, page 15;
Srirama Ramanujachari, Yajñavalkya Smṛti, Dharma Teachings of Yajñavalkya, Srimantham Math, Madras</ref><ref>Sanskrit: Yajnavalkya Smriti page 27;
Transliteration: Yajnavalkya-Smrti Chapter 1, Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text und Sprachmaterialien, Germany; Quote: "Ijya Acāra Dama Ahimsa Dāna Svādhyāya Karmanam, Ayam tu Paramo Dharma yad Yogena Atman Darshanam"</ref> {{#if:Yajnavalkya Smriti 1.8|{{#if:|}}

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Levinson states that the role of Shruti and Smṛti in Hindu law is as a source of guidance, and its tradition cultivates the principle that "the facts and circumstances of any particular case determine what is good or bad".<ref name=davidlevinson/> The later Hindu texts include fourfold sources of Dharma, states Levinson, which include Atmanastushti (satisfaction of one's conscience), Sadacara (local norms of virtuous individuals), Smriti and Sruti.<ref name=davidlevinson>David Levinson (2002), Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, Template:ISBN, page 829</ref>

Bhasya on Dharma-smritiEdit

Medhatithi's philosophical analysis of and commentary on criminal, civil and family law in Dharmaśāstras, particularly of Manusmriti, using Nyaya and Mimamsa theories, is the oldest and the most widely studied tertiary Smṛti.<ref>Donald Davis (2010), The Spirit of Hindu Law, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 27-29</ref><ref>Donald Davis (2006), A realist view of Hindu law, Ratio Juris, Vol. 19, Issue 3, pages 287-313</ref><ref>Medhatithi - History of Dharmasastra PV Kane;
Also see: G JHA (1920), Manu Smrti with Bhasya of Medhatithi, 5 vols, University of Calcutta Press</ref>

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

Explanatory notesEdit

Template:Reflist

CitationsEdit

Template:Reflist

Sources

  1. Brick, David. “Transforming Tradition into Texts: The Early Development of Smrti.” ‘‘Journal of Indian Philosophy’’ 34.3 (2006): 287–302.
  2. Davis, Jr. Donald R. Forthcoming. The Spirit of Hindu Law.
  3. Template:Citation
  4. Lingat, Robert. 1973. The Classical Law of India. Trans. J. Duncan M. Derrett. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  5. Rocher, Ludo. “Hindu Conceptions of Law.” ‘‘Hastings Law Journal’’ 29.6 (1978): 1284–1305.
  6. Template:Citation

External linksEdit

Template:Hindudharma

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