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A sniper is a military or paramilitary marksman who engages targets from positions of concealment or at distances exceeding the target's detection capabilities.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Snipers generally have specialized training and are equipped with telescopic sights. Modern snipers use high-precision rifles and high-magnification optics. They often also serve as scouts/observers feeding tactical information back to their units or command headquarters.
In addition to long-range and high-grade marksmanship, military snipers are trained in a variety of special operation techniques: detection, stalking, target range estimation methods, camouflage, tracking, bushcraft, field craft, infiltration, special reconnaissance and observation, surveillance and target acquisition. Snipers need to have complete control of their bodies and senses in order to be effective. They also need to have the skill set to use data from their scope and monitors to adjust their aim to hit targets that are extremely far away. In training, snipers are given charts that they're drilled on to ensure they can make last-minute calculations when they are in the field.
EtymologyEdit
The name sniper comes from the verb to snipe, which originated in the 1770s among soldiers in British India in reference to shooting snipes,<ref name=":0">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="etymology">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> a wader that was considered an extremely challenging game bird for hunters due to its alertness, camouflaging color and erratic flight behavior. Snipe hunters therefore needed to be stealthy in addition to being good trackers and marksmen.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="etymology" /> In the 18th century, letters sent home by English officers in India referred to a day's rough shooting as "going sniping",<ref name=":0" /> as it took a skilled flintlock sportsman a lot of patience and endurance to wing-shoot a snipe in flight.<ref name=":0" /> Accomplishing such a shot was regarded as exceptional. During the late 18th century, the term snipe shooting was simplified to sniping. This evolved to the agent noun sniper, first appearing by the 1820s.<ref name="etymology" /> The term sniper was first attested militarily in 1824,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Better source needed becoming commonplace in the First World War.<ref name=":0" />
The older term sharpshooter comes from the calque of German word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, in use by British newspapers as early as 1801.<ref name="etymology" /><ref>In the Edinburgh Advertiser, 23 June 1801, can be found the following quote in a piece about the North British Militia; "This Regiment has several Field Pieces, and two companies of Sharp Shooters, which are very necessary in the modern Stile of War".</ref> The word alludes to good marksmanship, itself descendent of the shooting competitions ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> that took place throughout the year in Munich in the 15th century.<ref name=":1" /> Small companies of shooters ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})<ref name=":1" /> from the German states and Swiss cantons would form teams of {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> for such popular competitions; proudly carrying flags depicting a crossbow on one side and a target musket on the other.<ref name=":1" /> The earliest known date for the creation of a shooting club formed specifically for the use of firearms comes from Lucerne, Switzerland, where one club has a charter dating from 1466.<ref name=":1" /> During the American Civil War, Confederate marksmen equipped with the imported Whitworth rifles were known as the Whitworth Sharpshooters.
Snipers are also called "hunters" in many languages, due to the nature of the craft (with the hunting horn also being a symbol of marksmanship), being called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Other words for sniper include {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Completely different and peculiar is the Italian term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, in common use since First World War. The term {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is derived from Cecco (Beppe), familiarly and mockingly referring to the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph I (in Italian Francesco Giuseppe I; Cecco and Beppe are nicknames for Francesco and Giuseppe respectively).
Modern warfareEdit
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Military doctrineEdit
Different countries use different military doctrines regarding snipers in military units, settings, and tactics.
A sniper's primary function in modern warfare is to stay concealed at all times and avoid detection. Then from long range, to provide detailed surveillance from a concealed position and, if necessary, to reduce the enemy's combat ability by shooting high-value targets (especially officers and other key personnel), and in the process, cause disruption, pinning down and demoralizing the enemy.<ref name="Plaster p. ">Template:Harvnb</ref>Template:Page needed<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. ">Template:Harvnb</ref>Template:Page needed Typical sniper missions include managing intelligence information they gather during reconnaissance, target acquisition and impact feedback for air strikes and artillery, assisting employed combat force with accurate fire support and counter-sniper tactics, killing enemy commanders, selecting targets of opportunity, and even destruction of military equipment, which tend to require use of anti-materiel rifles in the larger calibers such as the .50 BMG, like the Barrett M82, McMillan Tac-50, and Denel NTW-20.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
Soviet- and Russian-derived military doctrines include squad-level snipers. Snipers have increasingly been demonstrated as useful by US and UK forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
Military snipers from the US, UK and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and a spotter.<ref name="Senich p. ">Template:Harvnb</ref>Template:Page needed A common practice is for a shooter and a spotter to take turns to avoid eye fatigue.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed In most recent combat operations occurring in large densely populated towns, such as Fallujah, Iraq, two teams would be deployed together to increase their security and effectiveness in an urban environment. A sniper team would be armed with a long-range weapon and a rapid-firing shorter-ranged weapon in case of close quarter combat.
The German doctrine of largely independent snipers and emphasis on concealment, developed during the Second World War, has been most influential on modern sniper tactics, and is currently used throughout Western militaries (examples are specialized camouflage clothing, concealment in terrain and emphasis on coup d'œil).<ref name="Senich 1982 p. ">Template:Harvnb</ref>Template:Page needed<ref name="Shore p. 316">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref>Template:Cite video</ref>
Sniper teamsEdit
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Sniper rifles are classified as crew-served in the United States military. A sniper team (or sniper cell) consists of a combination of at least one primary weapon operator, (i.e.: the shooter), with other support personnel and force protection elements, such as a spotter or a flanker. Within the Table of Organization and Equipment for both the United States Army and Marine Corps, the shooter does not operate alone, but has a backup shooter trained to fulfill multiple roles in addition to being sniper-qualified in the operation of the main weapon.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The shooter focuses mainly on firing the shot, while the spotter assists in observation of targets, accounts for atmospheric conditions and handles ancillary tasks as immediate security of their location, communication with other parties (e.g. directing artillery fire and close air support). A flanker is an extra teammate who is tasked to act as a sentry observing areas not immediately visible to the sniper and spotter, assisting with the team's rear security and perimeter defense, and therefore are usually armed with a faster-firing weapon such as an assault rifle, battle rifle or designated marksman rifle. Both the spotter and flanker carry additional ammunition and associated equipment.<ref name="Shah">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The spotter is responsible for detecting, identifying and assigning priority of targets for the shooter, as well as assessing the outcome of the shot. Using a spotting scope and/or a rangefinder, the spotter will predict the external ballistics and read the wind speed using an anemometer or physical indicators like the mirage caused by ground heat. Also, in conjunction with the shooter, the spotter will calculate the distance, shooting angle (slant range), mil-related correction, interference by atmospheric factors and the required leads for moving targets. It is not unusual for the spotter to be equipped with a ballistic table, a notebook or a tablet computer specifically for performing these calculations.
Law enforcement applicationsEdit
Law enforcement snipers, commonly called police snipers, and military snipers differ in many ways, including their areas of operation and tactics. A police sharpshooter is part of a police operation and usually takes part in relatively short missions. Police forces typically deploy such sharpshooters in hostage scenarios. This differs from a military sniper, who operates as part of a larger army, engaged in warfare. Sometimes as part of a SWAT team, police snipers are deployed alongside negotiators and an assault team trained for close quarters combat. As policemen, they are trained to shoot only as a last resort, when there is a direct threat to life; the police sharpshooter has a well-known rule: "Be prepared to take a life to save a life."<ref name="cbssniper"/> Police snipers typically operate at much shorter ranges than military snipers, generally under Template:Convert and sometimes even less than Template:Convert. Both types of snipers do make difficult shots under pressure, and often perform one-shot kills.
Police units that are unequipped for tactical operations may rely on a specialized SWAT team, which may have a dedicated sniper.<ref name="cbssniper">Template:Cite news</ref> Some police sniper operations begin with military assistance.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Police snipers placed in vantage points, such as high buildings, can provide security for events.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In one high-profile incident commonly referred to as "The Shot Seen Around the World" due to going viral online, Mike Plumb, a SWAT sniper in Columbus, Ohio, prevented a suicide by shooting a revolver out of the individual's hand, leaving him unharmed.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="nasta">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The need for specialized training for police sharpshooters was made apparent in 1972 during the Munich massacre when the German police could not deploy specialized personnel or equipment during the standoff at the airport in the closing phase of the crisis, and consequently all of the Israeli hostages were killed. While the German army did have snipers in 1972, the use of army snipers in the scenario was impossible due to the German constitution's explicit prohibition of the use of the military in domestic matters. This lack of trained snipers who could be used in civilian roles was later addressed with the founding of the specialized police counter-terrorist unit GSG 9.
Longest recorded sniper killEdit
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The longest confirmed sniper kill in combat was achieved by an undisclosed member of the Security Service of Ukraine in November 2023, hitting a Russian soldier at a distance of Template:Convert during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref name="Luo 2023 q544">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The previous record holder was a member of the Canadian JTF2 special forces who in June 2017 achieved a hit at a distance of Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
In November 2009, Craig Harrison, a Corporal of Horse (CoH) in the Blues and Royals RHG/D of the British Army struck two Taliban machine gunners consecutively south of Musa Qala in Helmand Province in Afghanistan at a range of Template:Convert or 1.54 miles using a L115A3 Long Range Rifle.<ref>Smith, Michael (2 May 2010) "Hotshot sniper in one-and-a-half mile double kill". The Sunday Times. Template:Subscription required</ref><ref name=skynews-super>Template:Cite news</ref> The QTU Lapua external ballistics software,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> using continuous doppler drag coefficient (Cd) data provided by Lapua,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> predicts that such shots traveling Template:Convert would likely have struck their targets after nearly 6.0 seconds of flight time, having lost 93% of their kinetic energy, retaining Template:Convert of their original Template:Convert velocity, and having dropped Template:Convert or 2.8° from the original bore line. Due to the extreme distances and travel time involved, even a light cross-breeze of Template:Convert would have diverted such shots Template:Convert off target, which would have required compensation.
The calculation assumes a flat-fire scenario (a situation where the shooting and target positions are at equal elevation), using British military custom high-pressure .338 Lapua Magnum cartridges, loaded with 16.2 g (250 gr) Lapua LockBase B408 bullets, fired at 936 m/s (3,071 ft/s) muzzle velocity<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> under the following on-site (average) atmospheric conditions: barometric pressure: Template:Convert at sea-level equivalent or Template:Convert on-site, humidity: 25.9%, and temperature: Template:Convert in the region for November 2009,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> resulting in an air density ρ = 1.0854 kg/m3 at the Template:Convert elevation of Musa Qala. Harrison mentions in reports that the environmental conditions were perfect for long range shooting, "... no wind, mild weather, clear visibility."<ref name=skynews-super/> In a BBC interview, Harrison reported it took about nine shots for him and his spotter to initially range the target successfully.<ref name=basc1>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Military historyEdit
Before the development of rifling, firearms were smoothbore and inaccurate over long distance. Barrel rifling was invented at the end of the fifteenth century, but was only employed in large cannons. Over time, rifling, along with other gunnery advances, has increased the performance of modern firearms.
1543-1600Edit
Long range marksmanship occurred as early as the mid-sixteenth century.
One example is the Ise-no-kami school of gunnery. It was founded by the Christian feudal lord of the Saiki Domain, Mori Takamasa (毛利高政 1559- 1628). Takamasa had aspired to become a marksman from a young age, and in his prime, he used up a 10-tan sailboat's worth of ammunition in just a few years, showing his considerable passion. He is said to have always told people, "You won't improve your skills unless you fire that much ammunition." During the battle of Ulsan Castle in Korea, he was a master of guns, firing at the enemy from a distance of seven cho ( about 770 meters ) with a 278 cm long "焔魔王 - Flaming Demon King" O-zutsu (Matchlock Cannon) throwing the enemy camp into confusion with his accurate shots.<ref name="Anzai1965">Template:Cite book</ref>
1701–1800Edit
Later "sharpshooting" or "sniping" became implemented in shooting terminology.
For example: in the 1752 Appin Murder, Colin Roy Campbell of Glenure was shot in the back near Duror by an unknown sniper, most likely from within Clan Stewart of Appin, in retaliation for Campbell's role in an early version of the Highland Clearances; the mass eviction of Stewart clansmen and their replacement by members of Clan Campbell.
Hunting terminology was quickly adapted to warfare by British soldiers. In a 1772 letter, a soldier described enemies firing very accurately:<ref name=JSAHR1925>Template:Cite journal</ref>
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… in erecting our batteries, the people frequently play tricks, by putting a hat with a cockade in it on a spunge staff, which the enemy fire at and often hit, to the diversion of the soldiery, who humorously call it sniping, and watch the flash to return the fire.{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
— {{#if:|, in }}Template:Comma separated entries}}
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On 11 September 1777, during the Battle of Brandywine, British Captain Patrick Ferguson had a tall, distinguished American officer in his rifle's iron sights. Ferguson did not take the shot, as he considered shooting anyone in the back dishonourable. Only later, did Ferguson learn that George Washington had been on the battlefield that day.<ref name="Leckie2010">Template:Cite book</ref>
At the Battles of Saratoga, Morgan's Riflemen hid in the trees and used early model rifles to shoot senior British officers. Most notably, Timothy Murphy shot and killed General Simon Fraser of Balnain on 7 October 1777 at a distance of about 400 yards.<ref name="MastHalberstadt2007">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Rose2008">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Dougan2006">Template:Cite book</ref>
In early 1800, Colonel Coote Manningham and Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. William Stewart of the British Army proposed using what they had learned while leading light infantry to establish a special unit of marksmen. Subsequently raised as the "Experimental Corps of Riflemen", they were armed with the formidable Baker rifle rather than the inaccurate smoothbore muskets used by most troops at that time.<ref name=forming>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Through the combination of a leather wad and tight grooves on the inside of the barrel (rifling), this weapon was far more accurate, though slower to load. On 25 August 1800, three companies, under the command of Stewart, spearheaded an amphibious landing at Ferrol, Spain.
1801–1900Edit
The term, "sharp shooter" was in use in British newspapers as early as 1801. In the Edinburgh Advertiser, 23 June 1801, can be found the following quote in a piece about the North British Militia; "This Regiment has several Field Pieces, and two companies of Sharp Shooters, which are very necessary in the modern Stile of War". The term appears even earlier, around 1781, in Continental Europe, translated from the German Scharfschütze. Scouts in the Ashanti army were made up of professional hunters who used their skill as marksmen to snipe at advancing enemy forces in response to detection by the enemy. They executed this often from a perch high in trees.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Whitworth rifle was arguably the first long-range sniper rifle in the world.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> A muzzleloader designed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, a prominent British engineer, it used polygonal rifling instead, which meant that the projectile did not have to bite into grooves as was done with conventional rifling. The Whitworth rifle was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Enfield, which had shown some weaknesses during the recent Crimean War. At trials in 1857 which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworth's design outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one. The Whitworth rifle was capable of hitting the target at a range of 2,000 yards, whereas the Enfield could only manage it at 1,400 yards.<ref>"Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 19" By Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain)</ref>
During the Crimean War, the first optical sights were designed to fit onto rifles. Much of this pioneering work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson, using optical sights produced by Chance Brothers of Birmingham. This allowed a marksman to observe and target objects more accurately at a greater distance than ever before.<ref>Template:Cite bookTemplate:Dead link</ref> The telescopic sight, or scope, was originally fixed and could not be adjusted, which therefore limited its range.
Despite its success at the trials, the rifle was not adopted by the British Army. However, the Whitworth Rifle Company was able to sell the weapon to the French army, and also to the Confederacy during the American Civil War,<ref>"Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers". Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain), 1860, p.12</ref> where both the Union and Confederate armies employed sharpshooters. The most notable incident was during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, where on 9 May 1864, Union General John Sedgwick was killed by a Confederate Whitworth sharpshooter at a range of about Template:Convert after saying the enemy "couldn't hit an elephant at this distance".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Second Boer WarEdit
During the Boer War the latest breech-loading rifled guns with magazines and smokeless powder were used by both sides. The British were equipped with the Lee–Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa the marksmen were a crucial component to the outcome of the battle.
The first British sniper unit began life as the Lovat Scouts, a Scottish Highland regiment formed in 1899, that earned high praise during the Second Boer War (1899–1902).<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed The unit was formed by Lord Lovat and reported to an American, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, the British Army Chief of Scouts under Lord Roberts. Burnham fittingly described these scouts as "half wolf and half jackrabbit.".<ref name="Plaster p. 5">Template:Harvnb</ref> Just like their Boer scout opponents, these scouts were well practised in the arts of marksmanship, field craft, map reading, observation, and military tactics.<ref name="cooper1994">Template:Cite journal</ref> They were skilled woodsmen and practitioners of discretion: "He who shoots and runs away, lives to shoot another day." They were also the first known military unit to wear a ghillie suit.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that "keener men never lived",<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and that "Burnham was the greatest scout of our time."<ref name="sniping_chap11">Template:Cite book</ref> Burnham distinguished himself in wars in South Africa, Rhodesia, and in Arizona fighting the Apaches, and his definitive work, Scouting on Two Continents, provides a dramatic and enlightening picture of what a sniper was at the time and how he operated.<ref name="cooper1994"/>
After the war, this regiment went on to formally become the first official sniper unit, then better known as sharpshooters.<ref name="Plaster p. 5"/>
World War IEdit
During World War I, snipers appeared as deadly sharpshooters in the trenches. At the start of the war, only Imperial Germany had troops that were issued scoped sniper rifles. Although sharpshooters existed on all sides, the Germans specially equipped some of their soldiers with scoped rifles that could pick off enemy soldiers showing their heads out of their trench.<ref name="Senich 1982 p. "/>Template:Page needed At first the French and British believed such hits to be coincidental hits, until the German scoped rifles were discovered.<ref name="Senich 1982 p. "/>Template:Page needed During World War I, the German army received a reputation for the deadliness and efficiency of its snipers, partly because of the high-quality lenses that German industry could manufacture.<ref name="Senich 1982 p. "/>Template:Page needed
During the First World War, the static movement of trench warfare and a need for protection from snipers created a requirement for loopholes both for discharging firearms and for observation.<ref name="One">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Often a steel plate was used with a "key hole", which had a rotating piece to cover the loophole when not in use.<ref name="One" />
Soon the British army began to train their own snipers in specialized sniper schools. Major Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard was given formal permission to begin sniper training in 1915, and founded the First Army School of Sniping, Observation, and Scouting at Linghem in France in 1916.<ref name="Parker pp. 211-212">Template:Harvnb</ref> Starting with a first class of only six, in time he was able to lecture to large numbers of soldiers from different Allied nations, proudly proclaiming in a letter that his school was turning out snipers at three times the rate of any such other school in the world.<ref name="Parker_p211-212">Template:Cite book</ref>
He also devised a metal-armoured double loophole that would protect the sniper observer from enemy fire. The front loophole was fixed, but the rear was housed in a metal shutter sliding in grooves. Only when the two loopholes were lined up—a one-to-twenty chance—could an enemy shoot between them.<ref name="sniping_chap5">Template:Cite book</ref> Another innovation was the use of a dummy head to find the location of an enemy sniper.<ref name="sniping_chap2">Template:Cite book</ref> The papier-mâché figures were painted to resemble soldiers to draw sniper fire. Some were equipped with rubber surgical tubing so the dummy could "smoke" a cigarette and thus appear realistic. Holes punched in the dummy by enemy sniper bullets then could be used for triangulation purposes to determine the position of the enemy sniper, who could then be attacked with artillery fire. He developed many of the modern techniques in sniping, including the use of spotting scopes and working in pairs, and using Kim's Game to train observational skills.<ref name="Prichard-Vernon pp. 10,19">Template:Harvnb</ref>
In 1920, he wrote his account of his war time activities in his book Sniping in France, to which reference is still made by modern authors regarding the subject.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Gilbert p. 45">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Brookesmith p. 77">Template:Cite book</ref>
The main sniper rifles used during the First World War were the German Mauser Gewehr 98; the British Pattern 1914 Enfield<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and Lee–Enfield SMLE Mk III, the Canadian Ross rifle, the American M1903 Springfield,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> the Italian M1891 Carcano, and the Russian M1891 Mosin–Nagant.
The Ottoman Empire initiated very effective sniper tactics against the British and ANZAC troops. The Allied forces on the Gallipoli Campaign come to believe that the Ottoman forces employed women snipers as well.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
World War IIEdit
During the interbellum, most nations dropped their specialized sniper units, notably the Germans. Effectiveness and dangers of snipers once again came to the fore during the Spanish Civil War. The only nation that had specially trained sniper units during the 1930s was the Soviet Union. Soviet snipers were trained in their skills as marksmen, in using the terrain to hide themselves from the enemy and the ability to work alongside regular forces. This made the Soviet sniper training focus more on "normal" combat situations than those of other nations.
Snipers reappeared as important factors on the battlefield from the first campaign of World War II. During Germany's 1940 campaigns, lone, well-hidden French and British snipers were able to halt the German advance for a considerable amount of time. For example, during the pursuit to Dunkirk, British snipers were able to significantly delay the German infantry's advance. This prompted the British once again to increase training of specialized sniper units. Apart from marksmanship, British snipers were trained to blend in with the environment, often by using special camouflage clothing for concealment. However, because the British Army offered sniper training exclusively to officers and non-commissioned officers, the resulting small number of trained snipers in combat units considerably reduced their overall effectiveness.<ref name="Shore p. 316"/>
During the Winter War, Finnish snipers took a heavy toll of the invading Red Army. Simo Häyhä is credited with 505 confirmed kills,<ref name="snipercentral.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name="Telegraph">Template:Cite newsTemplate:Cbignore</ref> most with the Finnish version of the iron-sighted bolt-action Mosin–Nagant. The most successful German sniper was Matthäus Hetzenauer with 345 confirmed kills. In Germany, kills are only confirmed in the presence of an officer, so Hetzenauer's estimated kills are many times higher. His longest confirmed kill was reported at Template:Convert.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Hetzenauer received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 17 April 1945.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
One of the best known battles involving snipers, and the battle that made the Germans reinstate their specialized sniper training, was the Battle of Stalingrad. Their defensive position inside a city filled with rubble meant that Soviet snipers were able to inflict significant casualties on the Wehrmacht troops. Because of the nature of fighting in city rubble, snipers were very hard to spot and seriously dented the morale of the German attackers. The best known of these snipers was probably Vasily Zaytsev, featured in the novel War of the Rats and the subsequent film Enemy at the Gates.
German Scharfschützen were prepared before the war, equipped with Karabiner 98 and later Gewehr 43 rifles, but there were often not enough of these weapons available, and as such some were armed with captured scoped Mosin–Nagant 1891/30, SVT, Czech Mauser rifles or scoped Gewehr 98 from WW1. The Wehrmacht re-established its sniper training in 1942, drastically increasing the number of snipers per unit with the creation of an additional 31 sniper training companies by 1944. German snipers were at the time the only snipers in the world issued with purpose-manufactured sniping ammunition, known as the 'effect-firing' sS round.<ref>Peter R. Senich: German Sniper 1914–45, Page 91</ref> The 'effect-firing' sS round featured an extra carefully measured propellant charge and seated a heavy 12.8 gram (198 gr) full-metal-jacketed boat-tail projectile of match-grade build quality, lacking usual features such as a seating ring to improve the already high ballistic coefficient of .584 (G1) further.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> For aiming optics German snipers used the Zeiss Zielvier 4x (ZF39) telescopic sight which had bullet drop compensation in 50 m increments for ranges from 100 m up to 800 m or in some variations from 100 m up to 1000 m or 1200 m. There were ZF42, Zielfernrohr 43 (ZF 4), Zeiss Zielsechs 6x, Zeiss Zielacht 8x and other telescopic sights by various manufacturers like the Ajack 4x, Hensoldt Dialytan 4x and Kahles Heliavier 4x with similar features employed on German sniper rifles. Several different mountings produced by various manufacturers were used for mounting aiming optics to the rifles. In February 1945 the Zielgerät 1229 active infrared aiming device was issued for night sniping with the StG 44 assault rifle.
A total of 428,335 individuals received Red Army sniper training, including Soviet and non-Soviet partisans, with 9,534 receiving the sniping 'higher qualification'. During World War ІІ, over 100,000 women went through sniper training, of which more than two thousand later served in the army.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Some used the PTRD anti-tank rifle with an adapted scope as an early example of an anti-materiel rifle.
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In the United States Armed Forces, sniper training was only very elementary and was mainly concerned with being able to hit targets over long distances. Snipers were required to be able to hit a body over 400 meters away, and a head over 200 meters away. There was almost no instruction in blending into the environment. Sniper training varied from place to place, resulting in wide variation in the qualities of snipers. The main reason the US did not extend sniper training beyond long-range shooting was the limited deployment of US soldiers until the Normandy Invasion. During the campaigns in North Africa and Italy, most fighting occurred in arid and mountainous regions where the potential for concealment was limited, in contrast to Western and Central Europe.Template:Citation needed
The U.S. Army's lack of familiarity with sniping tactics proved disastrous in Normandy and the campaign in Western Europe where they encountered well trained German snipers.<ref name="Senich 1982 p. "/>Template:Page needed In Normandy, German snipers could remain hidden in the dense vegetation and were able to encircle American units, firing at them from all sides. The American and British forces were surprised by how near the German snipers could approach in safety and attack them, as well as by their ability to hit targets at up to 1,000m. A notable mistake made by inexperienced American soldiers was to lie down and wait when targeted by German snipers, allowing the snipers to pick them off one after another.<ref name="Senich 1982 p. "/>Template:Page needed German snipers often infiltrated Allied lines, and when the front-lines moved, they would sometimes continue fighting from their sniping positions, refusing to surrender until their rations and munitions were exhausted.
Those tactics were also a consequence of changes in German enlistment. After several years of war and heavy losses on the Eastern Front, the German army was forced to rely more heavily on enlisting teenage soldiers. Due to lack of training in more complex group tactics, and thanks to rifle training provided by the Hitlerjugend, those soldiers were often used as autonomous left-behind snipers. While an experienced sniper would take a few lethal shots and retreat to a safer position, those young boys, due both to a disregard for their own safety and to lack of tactical experience would frequently remain in a concealed position and fight until they ran out of ammunition or were killed or wounded. While this tactic generally ended in the demise of the sniper, giving rise to the nickname "Suicide Boys" that was given to those soldiers, this irrational behavior proved quite disruptive to the Allied forces' progress. After World War II, many elements of German sniper training and doctrine were copied by other countries.<ref name="Senich 1982 p. "/>
In the Pacific War, the Empire of Japan also trained snipers. In the jungles of Asia and the Pacific Islands, snipers posed a serious threat to U.S., British, and Commonwealth troops. Japanese snipers were specially trained to use the environment to conceal themselves, using foliage on their uniforms and digging well-concealed hide-outs that often connected to small trenches. There was no need for long range accuracy because most combat in the jungle took place within a few hundred meters. Japanese snipers were known for their patience and ability to remain hidden for long periods, almost never leaving their carefully camouflaged sniping spots. This meant that whenever a sniper was in the area, the location of the sniper could sometimes only be determined after the sniper had fired a few shots. The Allies also used their own snipers in the Pacific, notably the U.S. Marines, who used M1903 Springfield rifles.
Common sniper rifles used during the Second World War include: the Soviet M1891/30 Mosin–Nagant and, to a lesser extent, the SVT-40; the German Mauser Karabiner 98k and Gewehr 43; the British Lee–Enfield No. 4 and Pattern 1914 Enfield; the Japanese Arisaka 97; the American M1903A4 Springfield and M1C Garand. The Italians trained few snipers and supplied them with a scoped Carcano Model 1891.
TrainingEdit
Military sniper training aims to teach a high degree of proficiency in camouflage and concealment, stalking, observation and map reading as well as precision marksmanship under various operational conditions. Trainees typically shoot thousands of rounds over a number of weeks, while learning these core skills.
Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed The most accurate position is prone, with a sandbag supporting the stock, and the stock's cheek-piece against the cheek.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed In the field, a bipod can be used instead. Sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm (or both) to reduce stock movement.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/> Some doctrines train a sniper to breathe deeply before shooting, then hold their lungs empty while they line up and take their shot.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed Other doctrines assert that exhausting the lungs results in an accelerated heart rate and suggest only a partial exhale before firing. Some go further, teaching their snipers to shoot between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
AccuracyEdit
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| 5.56×45mm NATO (.223 Remington) |
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| 7.62×51mm (.308 Winchester) |
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| 7.62×54mmR | Template:Right | |
| 7 mm Remington Magnum | Template:Right | |
| .300 Winchester Magnum | Template:Right | |
| .338 Lapua Magnum | Template:Right | |
| .50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO) |
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| 12.7×108mm (Russian) | Template:Right | |
| 14.5×114mm (Russian) | Template:Right | |
| .408 Cheyenne Tactical | Template:Right |
The key to sniping is considered to be accuracy, which applies to both the weapon and the shooter. The weapon should be able to consistently place shots within tight tolerances.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed The sniper in turn must use the weapon to accurately place shots under varying conditions.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact, such as range to the target, wind direction, wind velocity, altitude and elevation of the sniper, and the target and ambient temperature. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or cause a shot to miss completely.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
Snipers zero their weapons at a target range or in the field. This is the process of adjusting the scope so that the bullets' points-of-impact are at the point-of-aim (centre of scope or scope's cross-hairs) for a specific distance.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed A rifle and scope should retain its zero as long as possible under all conditions to reduce the need to re-zero during missions.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
A sandbag can serve as a useful platform for shooting a sniper rifle, although any soft surface such as a rucksack will steady a rifle and contribute to consistency.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed In particular, bipods help when firing from a prone position, and enable the firing position to be sustained for an extended period of time. Many police and military sniper rifles come equipped with an adjustable bipod.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed Makeshift bipods known as shooting sticks can be constructed from items such as tree branches or ski poles.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed Some military snipers use three-legged shooting sticks.
U.S. militaryEdit
Servicemen volunteer for the rigorous sniper training and are accepted on the basis of their aptitude, physical ability, marksmanship, patience and mental stability. Military snipers may be further trained as forward air controllers (FACs) to direct air strikes or forward observers (FOs) to direct artillery or mortar fire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Russian ArmyEdit
From 2011, the Russian armed forces have run newly developed sniper courses in military district training centres. In place of the Soviet practice of mainly squad sharpshooters, which were often designated during initial training (and of whom only few become snipers per se), these new army snipers are trained intensively for three months (for conscripts) or longer (for contract soldiers). The training program includes theory and practice of countersniper engagements, artillery spotting, and coordination of air support.<ref name="Shah"/> The first instructors are the graduates of the Solnechnogorsk sniper training centre.
The method of sniper deployment, according to the Ministry of Defence, is likely to be one three-platoon company at the brigade level, with one of the platoons acting independently and the other two supporting the battalions as needed.<ref>Gavrilov, Yuri "Take a bead: Army gets sniper schools" Rossiiskaya gazeta 19 October 2011.</ref>
Targeting, tactics, and techniquesEdit
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Range findingEdit
The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges, because a bullet travels with a curved trajectory and the sniper must compensate for this by aiming higher at longer distances.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed If the exact distance is not known the sniper may compensate incorrectly and the bullet path may be too high or low. As an example, for a typical military sniping cartridge such as 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) M118 Special Ball round this difference (or "drop") from Template:Convert is Template:Convert. This means that if the sniper incorrectly estimated the distance as 700 meters when the target was in fact 800 meters away, the bullet will be 200 millimeters lower than expected by the time it reaches the target.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
Laser rangefinders may be used, and range estimation is often the job of both parties in a team.<ref name="Plaster 2006">Template:Harvnb</ref> One useful method of range finding without a laser rangefinder is comparing the height of the target (or nearby objects) to their size on the mil dot scope, or taking a known distance and using some sort of measure (utility poles, fence posts) to determine the additional distance. The average human head is Template:Convert in width, average human shoulders are Template:Convert apart and the average distance from a person's pelvis to the top of their head is Template:Convert.
To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper may use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) ×1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards; alternatively in metric the height of the target in centimeters ×10, divided by the height of the target in mils, gives the range in meters.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is important to note that angular mil (mil) is only an approximation of a milliradian and different organizations use different approximations. This can vary as mil dot sizing and spacing changes. The USMC standard mil dot is sized at .25 mil based on a definition of 1 mil (that is, 1 milliradian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle) which is typically rounded off to 3.44 MOA for ease of use; this format facilitates estimating a target's height in inches and providing the resulting distance in yards. In comparison, the US Army standard mil dot is sized at .22 (often rounded to .2 for ease of use) mil based on a definition of 1 mil equals 3.6 MOA, which facilitates estimating a target's height in inches and providing the resulting distance in meters.<ref name=":2" />
At longer ranges, bullet drop plays a significant role in targeting.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed The effect can be estimated from a chart, which may be memorized or taped to the rifle, although some scopes come with Bullet Drop Compensator (BDC) systems that only require the range be dialed in. These are tuned to both a specific class of rifle and specific ammunition. Every bullet type and load will have different ballistics. .308 Federal 175 grain (11.3 g) BTHP match shoots at Template:Convert. Zeroed at Template:Convert, a 16.2 MOA adjustment would have to be made to hit a target at Template:Convert. If the same bullet was shot with 168 grain (10.9 g), a 17.1 MOA adjustment would be necessary.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
Shooting uphill or downhill is confusing for many because gravity does not act perpendicular to the direction the bullet is traveling. Thus, gravity must be divided into its component vectors. Only the fraction of gravity equal to the cosine of the angle of fire with respect to the horizon affects the rate of fall of the bullet, with the remainder adding or subtracting negligible velocity to the bullet along its trajectory. To find the correct zero, the sniper multiplies the actual distance to the range by this fraction and aims as if the target were that distance away. For example, a sniper who observes a target 500 meters away at a 45-degree angle downhill would multiply the range by the cosine of 45 degrees, which is 0.707. The resulting distance will be 353 meters. This number is equal to the horizontal distance to the target. All other values, such as windage, time-to-target, impact velocity, and energy will be calculated based on the actual range of 500 meters. Recently, a small device known as a cosine indicator has been developed.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed This device is clamped to the tubular body of the telescopic sight, and gives an indicative readout in numerical form as the rifle is aimed up or down at the target.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed This is translated into a figure used to compute the horizontal range to the target.
Windage plays a significant role, with the effect increasing with wind speed or the distance of the shot. The slant of visible convections near the ground can be used to estimate crosswinds, and correct the point of aim. All adjustments for range, wind, and elevation can be performed by aiming off the target, called "holding over" or Kentucky windage.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed Alternatively, the scope can be adjusted so that the point of aim is changed to compensate for these factors, sometimes referred to as "dialing in". The shooter must remember to return the scope to zeroed position. Adjusting the scope allows for more accurate shots, because the cross-hairs can be aligned with the target more accurately, but the sniper must know exactly what differences the changes will have on the point-of-impact at each target range.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
For moving targets, the point-of-aim is ahead of the target in the direction of movement. Known as "leading" the target, the amount of "lead" depends on the speed and angle of the target's movement as well as the distance to the target. For this technique, holding over is the preferred method.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed Anticipating the behavior of the target is necessary to accurately place the shot.<ref name="Plaster 1993 p. "/>Template:Page needed
Hide sites and hiding techniquesEdit
The term "hide site" refers to a covered and concealed position from which a sniper and his team can conduct surveillance or fire at targets. A good hide conceals and camouflages the sniper effectively, provides cover from enemy fire and allows a wide view of the surrounding area.
The main purpose of ghillie suits and hide sites is to break up the outline of a person with a rifle.
Many snipers use ghillie suits to hide and stay hidden. Ghillie suits vary according to the terrain into which the sniper wishes to blend. For example, in dry grassland the sniper will typically wear a ghillie suit covered in dead grass.
Shot placementEdit
Shot placement, which is where on the body the sniper is aiming, varies with the type of sniper. Military snipers, who generally do not shoot at targets at less than Template:Convert, usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest. These shots depend on tissue damage, organ trauma, and blood loss to kill the target. Body shots are used because the chest is a larger target.
Police snipers, who generally shoot at much shorter distances, may attempt a more precise shot at particular parts of body or particular devices: in one incident in 2007 in Marseille, a GIPN sniper took a shot from Template:Convert at the pistol of a police officer threatening to commit suicide, destroying the weapon and preventing the police officer from killing himself.<ref name="www.laprovence.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In high-risk or hostage situations where a suspect is threatening to immenently kill a hostage, police snipers may take head shots to ensure an instant kill. The snipers aim for the medulla oblongata to sever the spine from the brain. While this is believed to prevent the target from reflexively firing their weapon, there is evidence that any brain-hit is sufficient.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Target acquisitionEdit
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Snipers are trained for the detection, identification, and location of a targeted soldier in sufficient detail to permit the effective employment of lethal and non-lethal means. Since most kills in modern warfare are by other crew-served weapons, reconnaissance is one of the most effective uses of snipers.Template:Citation needed They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment (optical scopes) and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement typically let them shoot at high-value targets of opportunity, such as enemy officers.
The targets may be personnel or high-value materiel (military equipment and weapons) but most often they target the most important enemy personnel such as officers or specialists (e.g. communications operators) so as to cause maximum disruption to enemy operations. Other personnel they might target include those who pose an immediate threat to the sniper, like dog handlers, who are often employed in a search for snipers. A sniper identifies officers by their appearance and behavior such as symbols of rank, talking to radio operators, sitting as a passenger in a car, sitting in a car with a large radio antenna, having military servants, binoculars/map cases or talking and moving position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications.
Some rifles, such as the Denel NTW-20 and Vidhwansak, are designed for a purely anti-materiel (AM) role, e.g. shooting turbine disks of parked aircraft, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, and the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. A sniper equipped with the correct rifle can target radar dishes, water containers, the engines of vehicles, and any number of other targets. Other rifles, such as the .50 caliber rifles produced by Barrett and McMillan, are not designed exclusively as AM rifles, but are often employed in such a way, providing the range and power needed for AM applications in a lightweight package compared to most traditional AM rifles. Other calibers, such as the .408 Cheyenne Tactical and the .338 Lapua Magnum, are designed to be capable of limited AM application, but are ideally suited as long range anti-personnel rounds.
RelocatingEdit
Often in situations with multiple targets, snipers will use relocation. After firing a few shots from a certain position, snipers move unseen to another location before the enemy can determine where they are and mount a counter-attack. Snipers will frequently use this tactic to their advantage, creating an atmosphere of chaos and confusion. In other, rarer situations, relocation is used to eliminate the factor of wind.
Sound maskingEdit
As sniper rifles are often extremely powerful and consequently very loud, it is common for snipers to use a technique known as sound masking. When employed by a highly skilled marksman, this tactic can be used as a substitute for a noise suppressor. In this technique, very loud sounds in the environment, such as artillery shells air bursting or claps of thunder, are used to mask the sound of the shot. This technique is frequently used in clandestine operations, infiltration tactics, and guerrilla warfare.
Psychological warfareEdit
Due to the surprise nature of sniper fire, high lethality of aimed shots and frustration at the inability to locate and counterattack snipers, sniper tactics have a significant negative effect on morale. Extensive use of sniper tactics can be used to induce constant stress and fear in opposing forces, making them afraid to move about or leave cover. In many ways, the psychological impact imposed by snipers is quite similar to those of landmines, booby-traps, and IEDs (constant threat, high "per event" lethality, inability to strike back).<ref name="MastHalberstadt2007_2">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Halberstadt2008">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Pegler2011">Template:Cite book</ref>
Historically, captured snipers are often summarily executed. This happened during World War I<ref name="firstworldwar.com">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and World War II;<ref name="theregister.co.uk.2008.11.28">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> for example, the second Biscari Massacre was when 36 suspected snipers were lined up and executed on 14 July 1943.
As a result, if a sniper is in imminent danger of capture, he may discard any items (sniper rifle, laser rangefinder, etc.) which might indicate his status as a sniper. The risk of captured snipers being summarily executed is explicitly referred to in Chapter 6 of US Army doctrine document FM 3-060.11 entitled "SNIPER AND COUNTERSNIPER TACTICS, TECHNIQUES, AND PROCEDURES":
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Historically, units that suffered heavy and continual casualties from urban sniper fire and were frustrated by their inability to strike back effectively often have become enraged. Such units may overreact and violate the laws of land warfare concerning the treatment of captured snipers. This tendency is magnified if the unit has been under the intense stress of urban combat for an extended time. It is vital that commanders and leaders at all levels understand the law of land warfare and understand the psychological pressures of urban warfare. It requires strong leadership and great moral strength to prevent soldiers from releasing their anger and frustration on captured snipers or civilians suspected of sniping at them.Template:Citation needed{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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The negative reputation and perception of snipers can be traced back to the American Revolution, when American "Marksmen" intentionally targeted British officers, an act considered uncivilized by the British Army at the time (this reputation was cemented during the Battle of Saratoga, when Benedict Arnold allegedly ordered his marksmen to target British General Simon Fraser, an act that won the battle and French support).<ref name="Senich p. "/>Template:Page needed The British side used specially selected sharpshooters as well, often German Hessians.<ref name="Senich p. "/>Template:Page needed
Counter-sniper tacticsEdit
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The occurrence of sniper warfare has led to the evolution of many counter-sniper tactics in modern military strategies. These aim to reduce the damage caused by a sniper to an army, which can often be harmful to both combat capabilities and morale.
The risk of damage to a chain of command can be reduced by removing or concealing features that would otherwise indicate an officer's rank. Modern armies tend to avoid saluting officers in the field, and eliminate rank insignia on battle dress uniforms. Officers can seek cover through mundane actions such as reading maps or using radios.
Friendly snipers can be used to hunt the enemy sniper. Besides direct observation, defending forces can use other techniques. These include calculating the trajectory of a bullet by triangulation. Traditionally, triangulation of a sniper's position was done manually, though radar-based technology recently became available. Once located, the defenders can attempt to approach the sniper from cover and overwhelm them. The United States military is funding a project known as RedOwl (Robot Enhanced Detection Outpost With Lasers), which uses laser and acoustic sensors to determine the exact direction from which a sniper round has been fired.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
The more rounds fired by a sniper, the greater the chance the target has of locating him. Thus, attempts to draw fire are often made, sometimes by offering a helmet slightly out of concealment, a tactic successfully employed in the Winter War by the Finns known as "Kylmä-Kalle" (Cold Charlie).<ref>Petri Sarjanen (1998). Valkoinen kuolema: Talvisodan legendaarisen tarkka-ampujan Simo Häyhän tarina. Template:ISBN</ref> They used a shop mannequin or other doll dressed as a tempting target, such as an officer. The doll was then presented as if it were a real man sloppily covering himself. Usually, Soviet snipers were unable to resist the temptation of an apparently easy kill. Once the angle where the bullet came from was determined, a large caliber gun, such as a Lahti L-39 "Norsupyssy" ("Elephant rifle") anti-tank rifle was fired at the sniper to kill him.
Other tactics include directing artillery or mortar fire onto suspected sniper positions, the use of smoke screens, placing tripwire-operated munitions, mines, or other booby-traps near suspected sniper positions. Even dummy trip-wires can be placed to hamper sniper movement. If anti-personnel mines are unavailable, it is possible to improvise booby-traps by connecting trip-wires to hand grenades, smoke grenades or flares. Though these may not kill a sniper, they will reveal their location. Booby-trap devices can be placed near likely sniper hides, or along the probable routes to and from positions. Knowledge of sniper field-craft will assist in this task.
The use of canine units had been very successful, especially during the Vietnam War.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Irregular and asymmetric warfareEdit
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The use of sniping (in the sense of shooting at relatively long range from a concealed position) to murder came to public attention in a number of sensational U.S. criminal cases, including the Austin sniper incident of 1966 (Charles Whitman), the John F. Kennedy assassination (Lee Harvey Oswald), and the Beltway sniper attacks of late 2002 (Lee Boyd Malvo). However, these incidents usually do not involve the range or skill of military snipers; in all three cases the perpetrators had U.S. military training, but in other specialties. News reports will often (inaccurately) use the term sniper to describe anyone shooting with a rifle at another person.<ref name="Dockery2007">Template:Cite book</ref>
Sniping has been used in asymmetric warfare situations, for example in the Northern Ireland Troubles, where in 1972, the bloodiest year of the conflict, the majority of the soldiers killed were shot by concealed IRA riflemen.<ref name="Taylor p. 132">Template:Harvnb – "In 1971, the Provisional IRA shot dead forty-two British soldiers. In 1972, this figure rose to sixty-four, most of them killed by snipers."</ref> There were some instances in the early 1990s of British soldiers and RUC personnel being shot with .50 caliber Barrett rifles by sniper teams collectively known as the South Armagh sniper.<ref>Jackson, Mike (2006). Operation Banner: An Analysis of Military Operations in Northern Ireland Template:Webarchive. MoD, Army Code 71842</ref>
The sniper is particularly suited to combat environments where one side is at a disadvantage. A careful sniping strategy can use a few individuals and resources to thwart the movement or other progress of a much better equipped or larger force. Sniping enables a few persons to instil terror in a much larger regular force – regardless of the size of the force the snipers are attached to. It is widely accepted that sniping, while effective in specific instances, is much more effective as a broadly deployed psychological attack or as a force-multiplier.<ref name="RobertsSasser2004">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="FareySpicer2009">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="Gilbert1996">Template:Cite book</ref>
War in IraqEdit
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In 2003, the U.S.-led multinational coalition composed of primarily U.S. and UK troops occupied Iraq and attempted to establish a new government in the country. However, shortly after the initial invasion, violence against coalition forces and among various sectarian groups led to asymmetric warfare with the Iraqi insurgency and civil war between many Sunni and Shia Iraqis.
Through to November 2005 the Army had attributed 28 of 2,100 U.S. deaths to enemy snipers.<ref name="iniraq">Template:Cite news</ref> In 2006, it was claimed that one insurgent sniper, "Juba", had shot up to 37 American soldiers.<ref name="Reuters">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Training materials obtained by U.S. intelligence had among its tips for shooting U.S. troops, "Killing doctors and chaplains is suggested as a means of psychological warfare.", suggesting that those casualties would demoralize entire units.<ref name="iniraq"/><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Arab SpringEdit
Sniper activity was reported during the Arab Spring civil unrest in Libya in 2011, both from anti-governmental<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and pro-governmental<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> supporters, and in Syria at least from pro-government<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> forces.
Notable military marksmen and snipersEdit
Even before firearms were available, soldiers such as archers were specially trained as elite marksmen.
17th centuryEdit
- Lord Brooke, who represented the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, was the first recorded British sniper victim, killed by a Royalist soldier hiding in a bell tower in Lichfield.
18th centuryEdit
- Timothy Murphy (American Revolutionary War) – killed British General Simon Fraser during the pivotal Battles of Saratoga, hampering the British advance which resulted in their defeat.<ref name="Senich p. "/>Template:Page needed
- Patrick Ferguson (American Revolutionary War) – developer of the world's first breech-loaded military rifle (which advanced sniping and sharpshooting tactics), fought with his Corps of Riflemen (recruited from the 6th and 14th Foot) at the Battle of Brandywine, where he may have passed up a chance to shoot George Washington.<ref name="Plaster pp. 39-45, 53-55">Template:Harvnb</ref>
19th centuryEdit
- Napoleonic Wars – Use of Marine sharpshooters in mast tops was common in navies of the period, and Admiral Nelson's death at Trafalgar is attributed to the actions of French sharpshooters. The British Army developed the concept of directed fire (as opposed to massive unaimed volleys) and formed Rifle regiments, notably the 95th and the 60th who wore green jackets instead of the usual redcoats. Fighting as Skirmishers, usually in pairs, and trusted to choose their own targets, they wrought havoc amongst the French during the Peninsular War.
- British Rifleman Thomas Plunkett (Peninsular War) – shot French General Colbert and one of his aides at a range of between Template:Convert using a Baker rifle.<ref>Stuart Hadaway Rifleman Thomas Plunkett: 'A Pattern for the Battalion.'</ref>
- Colonel Hiram Berdan (American Civil War) – commanded 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters, who were Union marksmen trained and equipped with the .52 caliber Sharps Rifle. It has been claimed that Berdan's units killed more enemies than any other in the Union Army.<ref name="Senich p. "/>Template:Page needed
- Jack Hinson (American Civil War) recorded 36 "kills" on his custom-made .50 caliber Kentucky long rifle with iron sights.<ref name="McKenney2010">Template:Cite book</ref>
- During the American Civil War, an unidentified Confederate sniper shot Major General John Sedgwick during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House probably with a British Whitworth target rifle at the then-incredible distance of minimum Template:Convert. Ben Powell of the 12th South Carolina claimed credit, although his account has been discounted because the general he shot at with a Whitworth rifled musket was mounted, probably Brig Gen. William H. Morris. Union troops from the 6th Vermont claim to have shot an unidentified sharpshooter as they crossed the fields seeking revenge.<ref>Rhea, Gordon C. The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern 7–12 May 1864. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997. Template:ISBN pp 93–96</ref> The shooting of Sedgewick caused administrative delays in the Union's attack and led to Confederate victory. Sedgwick ignored advice to take cover, his last words according to urban legend being, "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist-", whereupon he was shot. In reality, he was shot a few minutes later.<ref name="Senich p. "/>Template:Page needed
- Major Frederick Russell Burnham – assassinated Mlimo, the Ndebele religious leader, in his cave in Matobo Hills, Rhodesia, effectively ending the Second Matabele War (1896).<ref name="nyt25jun1896">Template:Cite news</ref> Burnham started as a cowboy and Indian tracker in the American Old West, but he left the United States to scout in Africa and went on to command the British Army Scouts in the Second Boer War. For his ability to track, even at night, the Africans dubbed him, He-who-sees-in-the-dark,<ref name="jameswest">Template:Cite book</ref> but in the press he became more widely known as England's American Scout.<ref name="nyt1901">Template:Cite news</ref>
20th centuryEdit
- Billy Sing (World War I) – An Australian sniper with at least 150 confirmed kills during the Gallipoli Campaign; he may have had close to 300 kills in total at Gallipoli,<ref name="Hamilton2008">Hamilton, J. C. M. (2008): Gallipoli Sniper: The life of Billy Sing. Sydney: Pan Macmillan Australia. (Template:ISBN)</ref> and went on to fight at the Western Front.
- Francis Pegahmagabow (World War I) – Native Canadian sniper credited with 378 kills, and an unknown number of unconfirmed kills. He only took credit for kills when they were verified by an officer.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Finnish Lance Corporal Simo Häyhä, nicknamed "White Death",<ref name="white death"/> was a sniper during the Winter War and is regarded by many as the most effective sniper in the history of warfare, being credited with killing up to 705 Soviet soldiers (505 sniper kills, and estimated 200 sub-machine gun kills) in fewer than 100 days.<ref name="white death"/><ref name="hayha1"/><ref name="hayha2"/> Häyhä used a White Guard M/28 "Pystykorva" or "Spitz", variant of the Russian Mosin–Nagant rifle.<ref name="white death"/>
- Mikhail Ilyich Surkov has been said to have killed 702 enemy troops, Vladimir Gavrilovich Salbiev had 601 confirmed kills, Vasilij Kvachantiradze had 534, Akhat Akhmetyanov and Ivan Sidorenko had around 500.<ref name=ussr_snip>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Lieutenant Lyudmila Pavlichenko (World War II) was a female Soviet sniper with 309 confirmed kills, making her the most successful female sniper in history.<ref name="Sakaida-Hook pp. 31-32">Template:Harvnb</ref>
- Junior Lieutenant Vasily Zaytsev (World War II) was credited with killing about 200 German soldiers during the Battle of Stalingrad;<ref name=bioru>Template:In langBiography at the website on Heroes of the Soviet Union and Russia</ref> he is portrayed in the film Enemy at the Gates and in the book War of the Rats. Both are fictionalized accounts.
- Semyon Nomokonov killed 367 persons, including a general.<ref name=ussr_snip />
- Gefreiter (Private) Matthäus Hetzenauer was an Austrian sniper in World War II who was credited with 345 confirmed kills<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> on the Eastern Front, the most successful in the Wehrmacht.
- Helmut Wirnsberger – Austrian sniper, who has served in 3. Gebirgsjaegerdivision during WW II and credited 64 confirmed kills.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Chinese Sergeant Tung Chih Yeh claimed to have shot and killed over 100 Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) soldiers using a Chiang Kai-Shek rifle around Yangtze during the Second Sino-Japanese War.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Zhang Taofang (Chinese: 张桃芳; Traditional Chinese: 張桃芳; Wade–Giles: Zhang Tao-fang) was a Chinese soldier during the Korean War. He is credited with 214 confirmed kills in 32 days without using a sniper magnifying scope.Template:Citation needed
- Clive Hulme was a New Zealand recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He is credited with stalking and killing 33 German snipers in the Battle of Crete.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Ian Robertson served as a sniper with Australia's 3RAR after World War II. He became one of the most effective snipers during the Korean War, during which in one instance he killed 30 soldiers in a single morning.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Roza Shanina was a Soviet sniper during World War II credited with 59 confirmed kills, including twelve soldiers during the Battle of Vilnius.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock achieved 93 confirmed kills during the Vietnam War but believed to have over 200 unconfirmed kills. With a telescopic-scoped .50 caliber M2 Browning heavy machine gun, he set a world record for the longest recorded sniper kill at Template:Convert which stood for 35 years until 2002.<ref name="Hathcockshot">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead linkTemplate:Cbignore</ref><ref name="Hathcockshotb">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Chuck Mawhinney (Vietnam War) – 103 confirmed and 216 probable kills.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Adelbert Waldron (Vietnam War) – achieved 109 confirmed kills.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- Master Sgt. Gary Gordon and Sgt. First Class Randy Shughart (Somalia: Operation Gothic Serpent) – were Delta Force snipers who were awarded the Medal of Honor for their attempt to protect the injured crew of a downed helicopter during the Battle of Mogadishu.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref> This action was later dramatized in the film Black Hawk Down.
21st centuryEdit
- British Army CoH Craig Harrison of the Household Cavalry successfully killed two Taliban machine gunners south of Musa Qala in Helmand Province in Afghanistan in November 2009 at a range of Template:Convert, using an L115A3 Long Range Rifle rifle chambered in .338 Lapua Magnum. These were the longest recorded and confirmed sniper kills to that time.<ref name="Smith p. ">Template:Harvnb</ref><ref name="Alpert p. ">Template:Harvnb</ref>
- Canadian Master Corporal Arron Perry, formerly of the PPCLI (Operation Anaconda, Afghanistan) – briefly held the record for the longest recorded and confirmed sniper kill at Template:Convert in 2002, eclipsing U.S. Marine Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock's previous record established in 1967. Perry used a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) McMillan TAC-50 rifle. A few days later, a new record was achieved by his teammate during the same operation.<ref name="Maclean.Furlong"/>
- Canadian Corporal Rob Furlong, formerly of the PPCLI (Operation Anaconda, Afghanistan) – achieved a recorded and confirmed sniper kill at Template:Convert in 2002 using a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) McMillan TAC-50 rifle.<ref name="Maclean.Furlong">Template:Cite magazine</ref>
- U.S. Navy Chief Chris Kyle of SEAL Team Three, during four deployments to Iraq between 2003 and 2009, had 255 kills, 160 of which are confirmed by the United States Department of Defense, making him the deadliest marksman in US military history. During the Second Battle of Fallujah alone, when U.S. Marines fought running battles in the streets with several thousand insurgents, he killed 40 enemy personnel. For his deadly record as a marksman during his deployment to Ramadi, the insurgents named him 'Al-Shaitan Ramad' – the Devil of Rahmadi – and put a $20,000 bounty on his head. Kyle was honorably discharged in 2009, and on 2 February 2013, was murdered at a shooting range along with another victim in Texas by a Marine veteran suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. Subject of the movie American Sniper.
- U.S. Marine Corps Staff Sergeant Steve Reichert – Killed an Iraqi insurgent and possibly injured two more hiding behind a brick wall with a shot from 1 mile in Lutayfiyah, Iraq on 9 April 2004. Reichert was using a Barrett M82A3 .50 BMG rifle loaded with Raufoss Mk 211 multipurpose rounds. During the same engagement Reichert killed an Iraqi machine gunner pinning down a squad of Marines from a distance of Template:Convert.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Jim Gilliland – Previously held the record for the longest recorded confirmed kill with a 7.62×51mm NATO rifle at Template:Convert with a M24, killing an Iraqi insurgent sniper in Ramadi, Iraq on 27 September 2005.<ref>The Washington Times, U.S. Army sniper nails record shot, 11:16 pm, Sunday, 15 January 2006</ref>
- U.S. Army SGT Christopher Dale Abbott: As part of a U.S. Army counter-IED team in Iraq in 2007–2008, Abbott recorded 22 confirmed kills with an M24 7.62×51mm rifle for a period of only 7 months before being injured and sent out of theater. He and his team were tasked with seeking out insurgents placing IEDs along frequently used supply routes.Template:Citation needed
- U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Timothy L. Kellner – Template:As of, Kellner is still active as a sniper in the U.S. Army, with 78 confirmed kills during the Iraq War and 3 in Haiti.<ref name="snipercentral.com.Iraq">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Canadian Master Corporal Graham Ragsdale, using a 7.62mm C-3, registered 20 confirmed kills over ten days during Operation Anaconda.
- Sri Lankan Army sniper Corporal I.R. Premasiri, alias "Nero", of the 5th Battalion in the Gajaba Regiment has 180 confirmed Tamil Tigers kills.<ref>Army told no heavy weapons, not Prabha Template:Webarchive By Tissa Ravindra Perera. Retrieved 9 February 2010.</ref>
- Iraqi insurgent "Juba", a sniper who features in several propaganda videos. Juba has allegedly shot 37 American soldiers, although whether Juba is a real individual is unknown. He may be a constructed composite of a number of insurgent snipers.<ref name="alertnet.org.Juba">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Corporal Ben Roberts-Smith VC MG of the Australian Special Air Service Regiment was awarded the Medal of Gallantry for his actions in 2006 during Operation Perth in the Chora Valley of Oruzgan Province, Afghanistan. In that action, patrol sniper Roberts-Smith prevented an outnumbered patrol from being overrun by anti-coalition militia with sniper fire.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Subsequently, in early 2011, he became the second Australian to be awarded the Victoria Cross on Operation Slipper in Afghanistan. During the Shah Wali Kot Offensive in June 2010, having provided sniper over-watch for ground forces from a helicopter with an M14 EBR rifle, Roberts-Smith was placed into a firefight by helicopter and subsequently eliminated machine gun positions.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>
- U.S. Army Staff Sergeant Justin Morales – As part of the U.S. Army CIST (Counter Insurgent Sniper Team) in Iraq, he recorded 27 confirmed kills with an M24 7.62×51mm NATO rifle. From 2005 to 2006, Morales and his team in Balad, Iraq were tasked with seeking out insurgents placing IEDs along supply routes.Template:Citation needed
- During May 2017 in Iraq, a Canadian Special Operations Forces Command Joint Task Force 2 sniper, using a McMillan Tac-50 sniper rifle set a new world record for the longest confirmed kill shot at a distance of Template:Convert.<ref name="G&M">Template:Cite news</ref> The shot was fired from a high-rise building and the bullet travelled for "under 10 seconds" before hitting the target, an ISIS insurgent.<ref name="G&M" />
- Popular Mobilization Forces volunteer Abu Tahsin al-Salhi was a Shia Iraqi veteran sniper with 350 claimed ISIS kills.
See alsoEdit
- Jäger (infantry)
- List of snipers
- List of sniper rifles
- Longest recorded sniper kills
- Operation Foxley – plan to kill Adolf Hitler using a sniper
- Sniper Alley
- Snipers of the Soviet Union
- South Armagh Sniper (1990–97)
- Special forces
- Sniper equipment
ReferencesEdit
Further readingEdit
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- Walter, John. (2017) Snipers at war: And equipment and operations, history (US Naval Institute Press, 2017)