Soka Gakkai

Template:Nihongo is a Japanese new religion led by Minoru Harada since December 2023 based on the teachings of the 13th-century Buddhist priest Nichiren. It claims the largest membership among Nichiren Buddhist groups. The organization bases its teachings on Nichiren's interpretation of the Lotus Sutra and places chanting Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō at the center of devotional practice. The organization promotes its goals as supporting "peace, culture, and education".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Soka Gakkai was founded by educators Makiguchi and Toda on 18 November 1930, and held its inaugural meeting in 1937.<ref>Jacqueline I. Stone, Original Enlightenment and the Transformation of Medieval Japanese Buddhism (Studies in East Asian Buddhism), University of Hawaii Press 2003, Template:ISBN, page 454.</ref> It was disbanded during the Second World War when much of the leadership was imprisoned for violations of the 1925 Peace Preservation Law and charges of lèse-majesté. After the war, its expansion was led by its former third president Daisaku Ikeda. In Japan, Soka Gakkai is the head of Komeito, a conservative party allied with the ruling Liberal Democratic Party, and founded by Daisaku Ikeda in 1964. It heads a financial, educational and media empire,<ref>Levi McLaughlin, Soka Gakkai's Human Revolution: The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan, University of Hawaii Press 2019: "Conceiving of Soka Gakkai as a mimetic nation-state makes sense of the full range of its component elements, which include its affiliated political party Komeito (Clean Government Party), a bureaucracy overseen by powerful presidents, a media empire, a private school system, massive cultural enterprises, de facto sovereign territory controlled by organized cadres, and many other nation- state-like appurtenances." (p.ix)</ref> including newspapers, publishing houses, financial holdings and a network of schools.

Soka Gakkai says it has 11Template:Nbspmillion members in 192 countries and territories around the world. However, this figure is not supported by any independent count. According to the American academic Levi McLaughlin,<ref>Levi McLaughlin, Soka Gakkai's Human Revolution: The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan, Hawaii, University of Hawai‘i Press, 31 December 2018</ref> membership in Japan is closer to 2–3% of the country's population, or between 2.4 and 4Template:Nbspmillion people.

Soka Gakkai is still viewed with suspicion in Japan and has been embroiled in public controversies.<ref name=religionsworld>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek, "Soka Gakkai International" in J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann (eds.), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p. 2658. "Daisaku Ikeda (b. 1928), Soka Gakkai's charismatic third president, led the international growth of the movement. Although Ikeda and his successor, Einosuke Akiya, have gone to great lengths to improve the movement's public image, suspicion remains. Soka Gakkai's political involvement through the organ of the Komeito, a political party founded by the Soka Gakkai, and the near godlike reverence that members have for President Ikeda have tended to perpetuate public distrust. Although it has been subjected to a generalized suspicion toward Eastern religious movements in the United States, Europe, and South America, the movement's history outside of Japan has been tranquil by comparison to its Japanese history."</ref><ref name="wellman">Template:Cite book "When I conducted a survey of 235 Doshisha University students a few years ago asking their opinions about the Gakkai and how much they knew about its peace education programs, over 80 percent responded that they had a negative image of the movement and about 60 percent thought that its 'peace movement' is little more than promotional propaganda. The few respondents with a positive image were either Soka Gakkai members, were related members, or were friends of members."</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Lewis217>Template:Cite book "For over half a century, one of the most controversial new religions in Japan has been Soka Gakkai."</ref> Komeito, a political party closely aligned with Soka Gakkai and founded by elements of its lay membership, entered a coalition agreement with the Liberal Democratic Party in 1999 and is currently a junior partner in government. Soka Gakkai has been described as a cult.<ref name="McElhinney 2022 a248">Template:Cite magazine</ref>

Beliefs

The beliefs of Soka Gakkai center on recognizing that all life has dignity with infinite inherent potential; this immanent Buddhahood exists in every person and can be awakened through the Buddhist practice prescribed by Nichiren.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Further, a person's social actions at every moment can lead to Template:Transliteration, or the creation of value (the theory of the interdependence of life). Societal change is facilitated through "human revolution", a way of living in the world that creates value.<ref name=Fisker-Nielsen>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The doctrine of Soka Gakkai derives from Nichiren, who promulgated the Lotus Sutra as he perceived its application to the epoch in which he and people today live.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Soka Gakkai gives significance to Nichiren's writings, referred to as Template:Transliteration,Template:Refn and refers especially to the collection of Nichiren's writings that Nichiko Hori compiled and Jōsei Toda, published as Template:Transliteration in 1952.

Template:Transliteration

T'ien-t'ai (538–597), a Chinese Buddhist scholar who upheld the Lotus Sutra, developed a theoretical system to describe the infinite interconnectedness of life translated as "the principle of the mutually inclusive relationship of a single moment of life and all phenomena" or "three thousand realms in a single moment of life" (Japanese: Template:Transliteration). This theory demonstrates that the phenomenal world exists in a single moment. Soka Gakkai members believe that because Nichiren made actualizing this possible by inscribing Template:Transliteration and teaching the invocation, their prayers and actions can, in a single moment, pierce through limitations.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

"Life force" and "Human Revolution"

Soka Gakkai teaches that this "self-induced change in each individual" – which Josei Toda began referring to as "human revolution" – is what leads to happiness and peace.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Josei Toda studied a passage from the Immeasurable Meanings Sutra (considered the introduction to the Lotus Sutra) that describes Buddhahood by means of 34 negations – for example, that it is "neither being nor non-being, this nor that, square nor round". From this, he concluded that "Buddha" is life or life force.<ref name="Encountering the Dharma">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">Template:Cite book</ref>

Toda considered the concept of "Buddha as life (force)" means that Buddhism entails transforming society.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Ikeda has been quoted as saying, "Faith is firm belief in the universe and the life force. Only a person of firm faith can lead a good and vigorous lifeTemplate:Nbsp[...] Buddhist doctrine is a philosophy that has human life as its ultimate object, and our Human Revolution movement is an act of reform aimed at opening up the inner universe, the creative life force within each individual, and leading to human freedom."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The concept of life force is central to the Soka Gakkai's conception of the role of religion and the application of Nichiren's teachings. Ikeda states that "[o]ur health, courage, wisdom, joy, desire to improve, self-discipline, and so on, could all be said to depend on our life force".<ref name="Winning In Life With Daimoku">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Oneness of mentor and disciple

The Soka Gakkai liturgy refers to all of its first three presidents – Tsunesabura Makiguchi, Josei Toda, and Daisaku Ikeda – as "the eternal mentors of Template:Transliteration".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The organization's current leader, Ikeda, is revered by members.<ref>Chilson, Clark (2014). "Cultivating Charisma: Ikeda Daisaku's Self Presentations and Transformational Leadership". Journal of Global Buddhism, Vol. 15., p. 67</ref> The relationship between members and their mentors is referred to as "the oneness of mentor and disciple". The mentor is to lead and thereby improve the lives of his disciples. The mentor's actions are seen as giving disciples confidence in their own unrealized potential. The role of disciples is seen as supporting their mentor and realizing his vision using their unique abilities and circumstances.

Since the mid-1990s, the issue of the oneness of mentor and disciple has received more prominence in Soka Gakkai. There is a strong emphasis on "cultivating all membersTemplate:Nbsp[...] in discipleship" through forging "affective one-to-one relationships with Ikeda".<ref name=McLaughlin2012>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp

"On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land"

Nichiren wrote a treatise, "On Establishing the Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land," in 1260 and submitted it to the regent.Template:Who Soka Gakkai members believe it is one of his most important writings. In it, he claimed that the source of the natural disasters Japan faced at that time was due to the weakened spirit of its people, caused by attachments to religions that disavow the primacy of the people themselves. He called for the leaders and people to base their spiritual life on the Lotus Sutra, "the correct teaching", which would, in turn, lead to "the peace of the land".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp

Five "Eternal Guidelines of Faith"

In 1957, Josei Toda proclaimed three "Eternal Guidelines of Faith". In 2003, Daisaku Ikeda added two more guidelines. The Five Guidelines of Faith are:

1. Faith for a harmonious family;
2. Faith for each person to become happy;
3. Faith for surmounting obstacles;
4. Faith for health and long life;
5. Faith for absolute victory.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Relation to the Lotus Sutra

Soka Gakkai members pray to Nichiren's Template:Transliteration (see section on Gohonzon), which "embodies Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, the essence of the Lotus Sutra".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Template:Transliteration includes the Sutra's teaching that all life inherently possesses dignity when "illuminated by the light of the Mystic Law",<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and depicts the ceremony in which bodhissatvas embrace "their mission to teach and preach to suffering people the path to happiness and freedom".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Soka Gakkai's history is closely intertwined with the study of the Lotus Sutra. Josei Toda began the postwar reconstruction by lecturing on the sutra, the study of which led to what Soka Gakkai considers his enlightenment (see "Life Force and Human Revolution"). After Soka Gakkai's ex-communication by Nichiren Shōshū, Daisaku Ikeda conducted dialogue sessions on the Lotus Sutra, which resulted in the publication of a six-volume work called The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Karma (as "changing karma into mission")

The concept of karma is based on the law of causality. It refers to consequences created through actions, words, or thoughts. Both early Buddhists and Hindus believed that to redress karma accumulated throughout many eons, one must be reincarnated numerous times.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The concept of karma then often became a source of despair as well as a tool for Buddhist clergy to instill fear and guilt in the minds of believers. Soka Gakkai Nichiren Buddhism, however, believes that the fundamental cause for revealing the ultimate potential of life, or Buddha nature, can diminish the influence of negative karma in the present lifetime.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ikeda explains that negative karma is subsumed in the world of Buddhahood and is purified by its power.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Importantly, Soka Gakkai members believe effects are determined simultaneously with causes, though they remain latent until the right external influences bring them to fruition. Soka Gakkai Buddhism teaches that even the most stubborn karma can be overcome as one reveals one's Buddha nature in this lifetime.

Practices

The practice of Soka Gakkai members is directed to "oneself and others".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Chanting

The words Nam-myoho-renge-kyo (also called Daimoku) is the main practice of the organization, which is claimed to express the true nature of life through cause and effect.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Soka Gakkai members believe that chanting releases the power of the universal life force inherent in life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> For some members, chanting for material benefits is a first step toward realizing the ultimate goal of Buddhahood.

The believers of the organization chant these words reputed to change their lives, including the natural environments in which they live.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Accordingly, the intended goal is to produce an internal change that serves as the motivator for external social change. Furthermore, the organization teaches that chanting cannot be divorced from action.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Gohonzon

The Gohonzon Soka Gakkai members enshrine in their homes and centers is a transcription by the 26th High Priest Nichikan Shonin.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The central main syllabary of characters reads Namu-Myoho-Renge-Kyo (Kanji: 南 無 妙 法 蓮 華 經). The lower portion reads "Nichi-Ren" (Kanji: 日 蓮). On the corners are the names of the Four Heavenly Kings from Buddhist cosmology, and the remaining characters are names of Buddhist deities reputed to represent the various conditions of life.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The organization teaches that in contrast to worshipping the Buddha or Dharma as anthropomorphized personifications, Nichiren deliberately made a calligraphic mandala, rather than Buddhist statues as the central object of devotion.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> American author, Richard Seager explains the following:

"...In total, it is not a sacred image in the traditional sense but an abstract representation of a universal essence or principle.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Nichiren wrote: "I, Nichiren, have inscribed my life in sumi ink, so believe in the Gohonzon with your whole heart."<ref>Template:Citation</ref> He further stated: "Never seek this Gohonzon outside yourself. The Gohonzon exists only within the mortal flesh of us ordinary people who chant Nam-myoho-renge-kyo."<ref>Template:Citation</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}

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The Soka Gakkai often uses Nichiren's metaphor of a mirror to explain its faith in the Gohonzon. The Gohonzon "reflects life's innate enlightened nature and cause it to permeate every aspect of member's lives". Members chant to the Gohonzon "to reveal the power of their own enlightened wisdom and vow to put it to use for the good of themselves and others".<ref>Template:Citation</ref> The organization teaches that a member is considered to be practicing the Lotus Sutra when chanting Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo to the Gohonzon.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Faith, practice, and study

The primary practice of the Soka Gakkai, like that of most Nichiren sects, is chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, which is the title of the Lotus Sutra, and simultaneously considered the Buddha nature inherent in life<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and the ultimate reality of existence.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The supplemental practice is the daily recitation of parts of the 2nd and 16th chapters of the Lotus Sutra. Unlike other Nichiren sects, the Soka Gakkai stresses that practice for enlightenment entails actual "engagement in the realities of daily life", while including the happiness of others in one's own practice.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Believers claim that the Lotus Sutra contains principles or teachings that are not readily apparent. Furthermore, the Soka Gakkai claims that Nichiren revealed these teachings as The "Three Great Secret Laws" namely the following:.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

1. The "Object of Devotion" (Gohonzon mandala) used and designated by the Soka Gakkai
2. The incantation (of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo) by united Soka Gakkai believers
3. The sanctuary or place where Buddhism is practiced.<ref>Template:Citation</ref>

Soka Gakkai practices Nichiren Buddhism as it has been expounded by its three founding presidents, and so also studies their speeches and writings, especially those of third President Daisaku Ikeda. His novelized histories of the movement, The Human Revolution (and its sequel The New Human Revolution) have been said to have "canonical status" as it "functions as a source of inspiration and guidance for members".<ref name=canon>Template:Cite book</ref> Study meetings are held monthly. "The tenor of the meetings is one of open discussion rather than didactic teaching..." Discussions on Nichiren's teachings are welcomed, "dictatorial edicts on moral behavior are not."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Soka Gakkai practice also includes activities beyond the ritualistic, such as meetings, social engagement, and improving one's circumstances; these also have significance as religious activities in the Soka Gakkai.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Discussion meetings

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Gakkai meetings have been called "formal liturgies" in that their format – "chanting, relatos (experiences), teachings, inspiring entertainment" – is identical from place to place.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Discussion meetings are among the most important activities of the Soka Gakkai.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

At discussion meetings, participants are encouraged to take responsibility "for their own lives and for wider social and global concerns".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The format is an example of how the Soka Gakkai is able to "dispense with much of the apparatus of conventional church organization".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Proselytizing

The Soka Gakkai's expansion methods have been seen as controversial, as it employed a Buddhist method called shakubuku, a term employed by Nichiren, translated as "break and subdue (attachments to inferior teachings)."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The reason for propagation, as explained by Josei Toda, is "not to make the Soka Gakkai larger but for you to become happier ... There are many people in the world who are suffering from poverty and disease. The only way to make them really happy is to shakubuku them."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

In 1970 Ikeda prescribed a more moderate approach, "urging its members to adopt an attitude of openness to others"; the method Soka Gakkai prefers since then is called shoju– "dialogue or conversation designed to persuade people rather than convert them", though this is often referred to still as "shakubuku spirit".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

History

Foundation

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File:Tsunesaburo Makiguchi.jpg

Tsunesaburō Makiguchi, first President of the Sōka Gakkai

In 1928, educators Tsunesaburō Makiguchi and Jōsei Toda both converted to Nichiren Buddhism. The Soka Gakkai officially traces its foundation to November 1930, when Makiguchi and Toda published the first volume of Makiguchi's magnum opus on educational reform, Sōka Kyōikugaku Taikei (創価教育学体系, The System of Value-Creating Pedagogy).<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=valueCreator>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The first general meeting of the organization, then under the name Sōka Kyōiku Gakkai ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Value Creating Educational Society"), took place in 1937.<ref>Levi McLaughlin, Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions, Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion, Template:ISBN, page 282</ref>

The membership eventually came to change from teachers interested in educational reform to people from all walks of life, drawn by the religious elements of Makiguchi's beliefs in Nichiren Buddhism.<ref name=sgi-america>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The group had a focus on proselytization growing from an attendance of 60 people at its first meeting to about 300 at its next meeting in 1940.<ref>Kisala, pp. 141–142</ref>

Repression during the war

Template:See also In 1942, a monthly magazine published by Makiguchi called Kachi Sōzō ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, "Creating values") was shut down by the government, after only nine issues. Makiguchi, Toda, and 19 other leaders of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai were arrested on July 6, 1943, on charges of breaking the Peace Preservation Law and lèse-majesté: for "denying the Emperor's divinity" and "slandering" the Ise Grand Shrine. The details of Makiguchi's indictment and subsequent interrogation were covered in July, August, and October 1943 classified monthly bulletins of the Special Higher Police.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

With its leadership decimated, the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai disbanded.<ref name=ramseyer>Robert L. Ramseyer. "The Soka Gakkai". "The neighbor complained to the police, who arrested Jinno and a director of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai named Arimura." In Beardsley, Richard K., editor, Studies in Japanese culture I. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965. p. 156</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> During interrogation, Makiguchi had insisted that "The emperor is an ordinary man ... the emperor makes mistakes like anyone else".<ref name=encounteringDharma>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The treatment in prison was harsh, and within a year, all but Makiguchi, Toda, and one other director had recanted and been released.<ref name=ramseyer /> On November 18, 1944, Makiguchi died of malnutrition in prison, at the age of 73.

File:Josei Toda.jpg

Jōsei Toda, second President of the Sōka Gakkai

Jōsei Toda was released from prison on July 3, 1945, after serving two years of imprisonment on the charges of lèse majesté. He immediately set out to rebuild the organization that had been repressed and dismantled by the government during the war.<ref name=Murata>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=Palmer>Template:Cite book</ref>

The reconstruction of the organization

Toda officially re-established the organization, now under the shortened moniker Sōka Gakkai ("Value-creation society"), integrated his prison awakenings into the doctrine of the Soka Gakkai, began locating members who had dispersed during the war, started a series of lectures on the Lotus Sutra and Nichiren's letters, undertook business ventures (largely unsuccessful) to provide a stream of revenue for the organization, provided personal encouragement to many members, launched a monthly study magazine Template:Nihongo, and the newspaper Seikyo Shimbun, launched propagation efforts, and involved the active participation of youth including Daisaku Ikeda who was to become his right-hand man and successor.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Noah Brannen, a Christian missionary writing in 1969,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link</ref> describes the Soka Gakkai's study program at this point as "the most amazing program of indoctrination Japan has ever seen". New members attended local study lectures, subscribed to weekly and monthly periodicals, studied Toda's commentaries on the Lotus Sutra, took annual study examinations, and were awarded titles for their achievements such as Associate Lecturer, Lecturer, Associate Teacher, or Teacher.<ref name=encounteringDharma />Template:Rp<ref name="mcfarland">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

"The Great Propagation Drive"

The drive began with the 1951 inauguration speech of Josei Toda when he assumed the presidency of the organization. Before 1,500 assembled members, Toda resolved to convert 750,000 families before his death.<ref name="mclaughlin">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp The accuracy of this figure was never confirmed by outside sources.<ref name="mcfarland"/>Template:Rp The primary vehicle of the propagation efforts were small group discussion meetings.<ref name=Stone1994>Template:Cite journal</ref>Template:Rp

There are several competing narratives that attempt to explain how the Soka Gakkai was able to achieve this rapid growth. One narrative portrays a drive powered by the "seemingly unlimited enthusiasm" of its members<ref name="mcfarland"/>Template:Rp that was masterminded by Toda and channeled by his younger followers.<ref name=massSociety />Template:Rp The organization's own publications articulate this narrative.

A second narrative examines the Soka Gakkai's expansion through a sociological lens. White, in the first English-language sociological work on the Soka Gakkai, attributes the growth, cohesion, and sustainability of the organization to the organizational skills of its leaders, its system of values and norms that match the individual needs of members, and its ability to adapt to changing times.<ref name=massSociety />Template:Rp According to Dator, the organizational structure of the Soka Gakkai, which values individual participation within small heterogeneous groups and parallel peer associations by age, gender, and interests, fulfills members' socio-psychological needs.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

A third narrative tracks criticisms of the Soka Gakkai in the popular press and by other Buddhist sects. This narrative implies that the propagation efforts succeeded through intimidating and coercive actions committed by Soka Gakkai members<ref name=introalternative>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=brannenMilitant>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name=doherty>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name=heine>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp such as the practice then of destroying the household Shinto altars of new members.<ref name="kisala">Template:Cite book</ref> There were reports of isolated incidents of violence conducted by Soka Gakkai members but also incidents directed toward them.<ref name=massSociety>Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp<ref name="mclaughlin"/>Template:Rp

File:DaisakuIkedaTokyoMay2010.jpg

Daisaku Ikeda, third President of the Soka Gakkai, 2010

File:Международная Леонардо-премия 3.1.jpg

Daisaku Ikeda receiving "Leonardo Prize" in 2009 from Alexander Yakovlev

Jōsei Toda was succeeded as president in 1960 by the 32-year-old Daisaku Ikeda. Ikeda urged, from 1964, a gentler approach to proselytizing.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Under Ikeda's leadership, the organization expanded rapidly, both inside and outside Japan during the 1960s.

Soka Gakkai's own narratives argue that within the first 16 months of Ikeda's presidency the organization grew from 1.3 million to 2.1 million members.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By 1967 it grew to 6.2 million families according to its own reporting.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By 1968, the daily Seikyo Shimbun newspaper is supposed to have attained a circulation of 3,580,000.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Today, the Soka Gakkai claims it has a circulation of 5.5 million copies,<ref>Template:Citation</ref> but the number is controversial and impossible to verify since Seikyo Shinbun does not belong the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association nor the 日本ABC協会 who are officially in charge of the circulation numbers of Japanese newspapers.

International growth

In October 1960, five months after his inauguration, Ikeda and a small group of staff members visited the United States, Canada (Toronto),<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and Brazil.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In the United States he visited Honolulu, San Francisco, Seattle, Chicago, New York, Washington, DC, and Los Angeles, meeting with members, the vast majority Japanese war brides, at discussion and guidance meetings, setting up local organizations, and appointing leaders to take responsibility.

Ikeda also expanded the scope and pattern of the Gakkai's activities. In 1961 he created an arm of the organization, the Culture Bureau, to accommodate nonreligious activities. It had departments for the study and discussion of Economics, Politics, Education, Speech, and, later in the year, the Arts.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Ikeda and his team visited countries in Europe and Southeast Asia in 1961 and the Near and Middle East in 1962.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> By 1967 Ikeda had completed 13 trips abroad to strengthen the overseas organizations.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Gakkai's first overseas mission, called Nichiren Shoshu of America (NSA), grew rapidly and claimed some 200,000 American adherents by 1970.<ref name=worldReligions>Template:Cite book</ref> Ikeda founded Soka Junior and Senior High Schools in 1968 and Soka University in 1971.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Soka Gakkai International (SGI) was formally founded in 1975, on Guam.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Founding of the Komeito

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In 1961 Soka Gakkai formed the Komei Political League. Seven of its candidates were elected to the House of Councillors. In 1964 the Komeito (Clean Government Party) was formed by Ikeda. Over the course of several elections it became the third largest political party, typically amassing 10–15% of the popular vote.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The New Komeito Party was founded in 1998 and has been allied with the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) since 1999.

In 2014 the New Komeito was renamed Komeito again.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Komeito generally supports the policy agenda of the LDP, including the reinterpretation of the pacifist Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan, proposed in 2014 by LDP Prime Minister Shinzō Abe to allow "collective defense" and to fight in foreign conflicts.<ref name=Asahi20140727>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name="reference to NY times">Template:Cite news</ref>

1969: Crisis and transformation

In response to criticism, Ikeda made major shifts to the Gakkai's message.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> He committed the organization to the rights of free speech and freedom of religion, admitting it had been intolerant and overly sensitive in the past.

In the 1970s Ikeda helped transition the Soka Gakkai from an internally focused organization centered on its own membership growth to one adopting a focus on a motto of "Peace, Culture, and Education". On October 12, 1972, at the official opening of the Shohondo at Taiseki-ji Ikeda announced the start of the Soka Gakkai's "Phase Two" which would shift direction from aggressive expansion to a movement for international peace through friendship and exchange.<ref name="Profile: Soka Gakkai">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Scandals in the 1990s

Nichiren Shōshū excommunicated the Soka Gakkai and the Soka Gakkai International (SGI) on 28 November 1991 due to doctrinal conflicts and the reputation of the Soka Gakkai, at that time entangled in political and financial scandals.

In 1991, the Soka Gakkai had to pay $4.5 million in back taxes on 2.4 billion yen (US$1.7 million) of undeclared income.

Former relations with the Nichiren Shoshu sect

Generally speaking, Soka Gakkai and Nichiren Shōshū worked in harmony before 1990, although there have been moments of tension. An early example of strained relations came during World War II, in 1943, when the Nichiren sect's headquarters at Taiseki-ji was willing to comply with Japanese government demands to enshrine a Shinto talisman of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu inside the temple. Makiguchi and Toda, on the other hand, angrily rebuked Taiseki-ji for doing so, and the two were jailed for refusing to do the same (Makiguchi would also die while in prison).<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Nikken Abe excommunicated Soka Gakkai and its senior leaders in November 1991, citing doctrinal deviations, the Soka Gakkai's usurpation of rites such as the Higan-e equinox ceremonies and funerals without Nichiren Shoshu priests officiating, its defiant staging of Ode to Joy concerts that, for their Christian themes, were incongruent with Nichiren Shoshu doctrine, and a speech (which became public when a recording was leaked) by then Soka Gakkai President Daisaku Ikeda.Template:Citation needed It also condemned Ikeda for abandoning the aggressive propagation style (shakubuku) that led to some social criticism of the lay group, though not the priesthood.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> In response, the Soka Gakkai countered by outlining Nichiren Shoshu's deviation from their own interpretation of Nichiren's doctrines, along with accusations of simony and hedonism among its ranking priests.Template:Citation needed

The priesthood further accused the organization of impiety and sacrilegious behavior, citing the song "Ode to Joy" along with the promotion of its musical performance, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, as evidence for non-Buddhist teachings.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

In 2014, the Soka Gakkai rewrote its bylaws to reflect that it no longer had any relationship with Nichiren Shoshu or its doctrine.<ref name="Reaffirming the Original Spirit of">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Outreach

In the 1970s, the Soka Gakkai began to re-conceptualize itself as an organization promoting the theme of "Peace, culture, and education."<ref name="Seager Religion Culture">Template:Cite book</ref> "Since its beginning – and especially under Ikeda’s leadership - Soka Gakkai has struggled to relate its image to the ideal of an international organization committed to social causes", analyses scholar Suzana Ramos Coutinho Bornholdt in Japanese Buddhism and Social Action: the case of Soka Gakkai.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref>

Ikeda also founded the Tokyo Fuji Art Museum in 1983. It houses collections of western and oriental art, and has participated in exchanges with museums around the world.<ref>Karel Dobbelaere, "Toward a Pillar Organization?" in Global Citizens, Machacek and Wilson (eds.), page=245</ref>

The Soka Gakkai has participated in many activities and exhibitions in conjunction with the UN.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Soka Gakkai has established multiple institutions and research facilities.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Karel Dobbelaere, "Toward a Pillar Organization?" in Global Citizens, Machacek and Wilson (eds.), pp. 243, 250</ref>

This social and cultural projects also appear to be part of a strategy, according to some scholars and critics of Soka Gakkai, which "uses the image and practice of an NGO (to respond) to its own necessity: the recruitment and maintenance of membership" and "tries to create the image of an institution engaged in activities to promote peace, culture and education based on Buddhism, clearly following the tendencies of national politics.".<ref name=":1" />

Organization

File:創価学会広宣流布大誓堂.jpg

Hall of the Great Vow for Kosen-rufu (Kosen-rufu Daiseido)

File:Soka Gakkai (new head office 1).jpg

Soka Gakkai's Tokyo headquarters

Formally, the Soka Gakkai International is the umbrella organization for all national organizations, while Soka Gakkai by itself refers to the Japanese arm.

The basic functional organizational unit is the Block – a group of members in a neighborhood who meet regularly for discussion, study and encouragement. A number of Blocks form a District, and Districts are grouped into Chapters. From there the Soka Gakkai is organized into Areas, Regions, Prefectures and, finally, Territories – all under the umbrella of the national organization. Discussion and study meetings, the basic organizational activities, are conducted mainly at the Block level, though there are occasional meetings held at every level.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Membership

Soka Gakkai International claims a total of over 12 million adherents.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The majority of these belong to the Japanese organization, whose official membership count is 8.27 million households.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> However, this is the figure put forward by the organization itself, and is not supported by any independent count. According to the work of American academic Levi McLaughlin, membership in Japan is closer to 2-3% of the country's population, or between 2.4 and 4 million people.

In a 1996 NHK survey, it was found that Soka Gakkai adherent made up somewhere around 3.2% of the Japanese population, or somewhere around 4 million individuals.<ref name="1996statistics">Religion in Japan by prefecture, 1996. English language bar table.</ref> According to statistics from the Agency for Cultural Affairs (a body of the Japanese Ministry of Education), the Japanese organization had 5.42 million individual members in 2000.<ref name="bunka2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

In a 2002–2003 survey of 602 Soka Gakkai adherents living in Sapporo, Hokkaido who had at least one child over the age of 18, it was found that 65.9% of those members' adult children were also themselves active members. Additionally, it was found that among the siblings of 418 second-generation members, collectively speaking, 69.5% of all those siblings were also active members. A further analysis found that "higher degrees of parental religiosity, better family relationships, and higher levels of participation in youth groups" contributed to higher degrees of religiosity among Soka Gakkai children during middle school years, although this effect was more pronounced in women than in men.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

A study in Europe found that most of new members joined because of the personalities of the people they met within the organization; but the biggest reason for continuing is the positive changes they see in their own lives.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

List of Soka Gakkai presidents

The following are the list of the presidents of the Soka Gakkai:

1. Tsunesaburō Makiguchi – (18 November 1930 – 18 November 1944)
2. Jōsei Toda – (3 May 1951 – 2 April 1958)
3. Daisaku Ikeda – (3 May 1960 – 24 April 1979) + (Honorary President of the Soka Gakkai International: 1979 – 2023)
4. Hiroshi Hōjō – (24 April 1979 – 18 July 1981)
5. Einosuke Akiya – (18 July 1981 – 9 November 2006)<ref name=sgi_press_release>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

1. Minoru Harada – (9 November 2006 – incumbent)<ref name=sgi_press_release/>

Economic and social influence

The Soka Gakkai is the head of a media, political and financial empire. Levi McLaughlin writes that "exerts considerable influence in the fields of education, media, finance, and culture throughout Japan".<ref name="University of Hawaii Press">Template:Cite book</ref>

Tax situation

Legally declared in Japan as a religious juridical person since 1952, Soka Gakkai is not subject to taxation as an organization.

Though, it has been sued by Japanese tax authorities in 1991 for evading taxes on profits of 2.3 billion yen, which were obtained through tombstone transactions.

Assets

Estimates about Soka Gakkai’s financial assets are imperfect since "they cannot accurately assess the full value of the Gakkai’s thousands of facilities, its stocks and other investments, its holdings overseas, or Ikeda Daisaku’s personal wealth".<ref name="University of Hawaii Press"/>

According to the magazine Shûkan Daiyamondo (June 2016), the assets of the organization include fourteen corporations, investments in 331 other companies for 18 billion yens, holding overseas, and real estate holdings.Template:Citation needed Forbes magazine estimated (2004) that the organization has an income of at least $1.5 billion per year.<ref name=forbes>Template:Cite news</ref> In 2008, religion scholar Hiroshi Shimada has estimated the wealth of the Soka Gakkai at ¥500 billion.<ref name=matsutani>Template:Cite news</ref>

Press and publishing companies

Daisaku Ikeda's writings are the roots of a massive publishing and media enterprise. The Gakkai's newspaper, Seikyō shinbun, has an important readership base. But it is only sold in Soka Gakkai's venues, and mainly bought and read by Soka Gakkai's members, though its print run is impossible to verify.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Soka Gakkai owns publishing companies, in Japan but also abroad. They are in charge of the translation and publishing of The Human Revolution, Daisaku's Ikeda novel (World Tribune Press in the USA ; Eternal Ganges in India ; Soka Gakkai International Publishers Group in Germany...)

Perception

In Japan

Today, Soka Gakkai is rarely criticized in mainstream news media. Since the Komeito Party joined the ruling government coalition in 1999, widespread criticism by the media of the Soka Gakkai has abated and the Soka Gakkai is gaining acceptance as part of the Japanese mainstream.<ref>Mette Fisker-Nielsen, pp. 65–66.</ref><ref name="Oxford University Press">Template:Cite book</ref> There has been a "fractured view" of the Soka Gakkai in Japan. On the one hand, it is seen as a politically and socially engaged movement;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Takesato Watanabe, "The Movement and the Japanese Media" in David Machacek and Bryan Wilson (eds.), Global Citizens, Oxford University Press, 2000. "The Soka Gakkai is exceptional in that no other large Japanese religious organization engages in both social and political issues—from the promotion of human rights to the protection of the environment and abolition of nuclear weapons—as actively as it does." (p. 217)</ref> on the other, it is still viewed with suspicion by Japanese people.<ref name="wellman1">Template:Cite book "When I conducted a survey of 235 Doshisha University students a few years ago asking their opinions about the Gakkai and how much they knew about its peace education programs, over 80 percent responded that they had a negative image of the movement and about 60 percent thought that its "peace movement" is little more than promotional propaganda. The few respondents with a positive image were either Soka Gakkai members, were related members, or were friends of members."</ref><ref>Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek, "Soka Gakkai International" in J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann (eds.), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, 2010, p. 2658. "Daisaku Ikeda (b. 1928), Soka Gakkai's charismatic third president, led the international growth of the movement. Although Ikeda and his successor, Einosuke Akiya, have gone to great lengths to improve the movement's public image, suspicion remains. Soka Gakkai's political involvement through the organ of the Komeito, a political party founded by the Soka Gakkai, and the near godlike reverence that members have for President Ikeda have tended to perpetuate public distrust. Although it has been subjected to a generalized suspicion toward Eastern religious movements in the United States, Europe, and South America, the movement's history outside of Japan has been tranquil by comparison to its Japanese history."</ref>

International perception

Soka Gakkai is considered as a cult in several countries, including France and Belgium.

In 2015, Italian prime minister Matteo Renzi signed an agreement that recognizes the Soka Gakkai as a "Concordat" that grants the religions status in "a special 'club' of denominations consulted by the government in certain occasions, and, perhaps more importantly, to be partially financed by taxpayers' money." Eleven other religious denominations share this status.<ref name = berkley>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name = italy>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Controversies

In 1969, prominent university professor Fujiwara Hirotatsu authored the book I Denounce Soka Gakkai (Soka Gakkai o kiru)<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> in which he severely criticized the Gakkai. The Gakkai and Kōmeitō attempted to use their political power to suppress its publication. When Fujiwara went public with the attempted suppression, the Soka Gakkai was harshly criticized in the Japanese media.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Cult status

Soka Gakkai has been described as a cult.<ref name="McElhinney 2022 a248"/><ref name="electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies 2017 j471">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Particular controversies have arisen around its entry into politics with the New Komeito and an alleged cult of personality surrounding former leader Daisaku Ikeda. Seizaburo Sato, deputy director of the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, described Soka Gakkai as "a dictatorship built around the person of one man."<ref name="sect_rise_pol">Template:Cite news</ref> Soka Gakkai members have made arson attacks and bomb threat against rival groups, as well as wiretapping the house of the Communist Party of Japan leader. Soka Gakkai has distanced themselves from these members and attributed their actions to mental illness.<ref name="gonna_be_a_doozy">Template:Cite news. "Members of the group have used arson and a bomb threat against temples of rival Buddhist groups. Soka Gakkai has also tried to block the publication of critical books, and members were convicted of wiretapping the house of the Communist Party leader. A spokesman said the bomb threat and arson incidents involved individuals with histories of mental illness and denied that Soka Gakkai had ever ordered violence or harassment."</ref> Rick Alan Ross, cult specialist and founder of the nonprofit Cult Education Institute, considers them a "destructive cult" and claims to have "received serious complaints from former members and from family members."<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Sexual assault allegation

In June 1996, Nobuko Nobuhira, a long-time Sokka Gakkai member, filed a 75 million yen civil suit against Ikeda, alleging that he raped her on three occasions, including at the sect's facilities and on a street in Hokkaido. Sokka Gakkai lawyers denied these claims, calling them "groundless fabrications motivated by personal resentment" and alleging that Nobuhira had extorted money from Soka Gakkai members. The lawsuit was dismissed in 1996, and an appeal was denied in 2006.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Lawsuit versus U.S. Army Corp of Engineers

In 2025, Soka Gakkai International-USA filed a lawsuit attempting to stop an Army Corp of Engineers construction project which Soka Gakkai claimed would interfere with the group's religious practice at a retreat center in the Florida Everglades.<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The group contends that the Corps' planned 7-story high pump station and water-impounded area would interfere with the serenity of the retreat center, and that the project is unlawful because the Corps allegedly did not study the environmental impact the project would have.<ref name=":2" /> The Corps disputed the group's allegations and stated that the project is crucial to improving the flow of water in the Everglades, and that it has planned a sound barrier and wildlife fencing around the project to mitigate concerns.<ref name=":2" /> In January 2025, a federal Magistrate Judge denied Soka Gakkai's request for a preliminary injunction to halt the project, ruling that the group's claims of harm were too speculative to support a preliminary injunction.<ref name=":2" />

See also

• New religious movement
• Religion in Japan
• Buddhism in Japan
• Death of Akiyo Asaki

Bibliography

• Sōka Gakkai's Human Revolution. The Rise of a Mimetic Nation in Modern Japan, Levi McLaughlin · Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2019, 236 p
• Sōka Gakkai in America: Accommodation and Conversion By Phillip E. Hammond and David W. Machacek. London: Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN
• "The Sōka Gakkai: Buddhism and the Creation of a Harmonious and Peaceful Society" by Daniel A. Metraux in Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King, eds. SUNY Press, 1996.
• The New Believers: A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions. David V Barrett. Octopus Publishing Group, 2003
• The Lotus and the Maple Leaf: The Sōka Gakkai in Canada by Daniel A. Metraux (University Press of America, 1996)
• Sōka Gakkai kaibō ("Dissecting Sōka Gakkai") by the editors of Aera (Asahi Shimbun, 2000). Template:ISBN (Japanese)
• A Public Betrayed: An Inside Look at Japanese Media Atrocities and Their Warnings to the West. Adam Gamble & Takesato Watanabe. Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2004. Template:ISBN
• (SERA) Southeast Review of Asian Studies 29 (2007). "Religion, Politics, and Constitutional Reform in Japan," by Daniel Metraux, 157–72.
• Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, eds. 2002.
• Proselytizing and the Limits of Religious Pluralism in Contemporary Asia By Juliana Finucane, R. Michael Feener, pages 103 122.
• Neo Yeow Ann Aaron {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}Template:Dead link

Further reading

Books

• Strand, Clark: Waking the Buddha – how the most dynamic and empowering buddhist movement in history is changing our concept of religion. Strand examines how the Soka Gakkai, based on the insight that "Buddha is life", has evolved a model in which religion serves the needs of its practitioners, rather than the practitioners adhering to dogma and traditions for their own sake. Middleway Press, 2014. Template:ISBN
• Editors of AERA: Sōkagakkai kaibai (創価学会解剖: "Dissecting Sōkagakkai"). Asahi Shimbun-sha, October 1995. Template:ISBN. AERA is a weekly investigative news magazine published by one of Japan's leading news organizations; this book attempts to present a dry, fair assessment of Sōkagakkai and Daisaku Ikeda and contains several interviews with Gakkai leaders.
• Shimada, Hiroki: Sōkagakkai no jitsuryoku (創価学会の実力: "The true extent of Sōkagakkai's power"). Shinchosha, August 2006. Template:ISBN. Argues that the Sōka Gakkai is not (or is no longer) as powerful as many of its opponents fear, and that it is losing ground internally as all but the most dedicated are turned off by the leadership and fewer members need the organization for social bonding. Also notes that it is becoming more like a civic rather than a religious organization, and that inactive members do not resign because they want to avoid the ostracism and harassment that can result.
• Shimada, Hiroki: Kōmeitō vs. Sōkagakkai (公明党vs.創価学会: "The Kōmeitō and the Sōka Gakkai"). Asahi Shinsho, June 2007. Template:ISBN. Describes the relationship between Kōmeitō and Sōka Gakkai and the development of their history. Touches on the Sōka Gakkai–Nichiren Shōshū split, describing it as the result of a power struggle and financial constraints, as well as on the organized harassment of opponents by Sōka Gakkai members, the organization's use of its media vehicles to vilify opponents, and Ikeda's demand for unquestioning loyalty.
• Tamano, Kazushi: Sōkagakkai no Kenkyū (創価学会の研究: "Research on the Sōkagakkai"). Kodansha Gendai Shinsho, 2008. Template:ISBN. This book is an attempt to review scholarly studies of Sōka Gakkai from the 1950s to the 1970s and shifts in perceptions of the organization as journalists took over from scholars. Tamano takes the perspective of a social scientist and describes Sōka Gakkai as a socio-political phenomenon. He is also somewhat critical of some views Shimada expressed in the latter's recent publications.
• Yamada, Naoki: Sōkagakkai towa nanika (創価学会とは何か: "Explaining Sōkagakkai"). Shinchosha, April 2004. Template:ISBN
• Yatomi, Shin: Buddhism In A New Light. Examines Soka Gakkai interpretations of Buddhist concepts. World Tribune Press, 2006. Template:ISBN

News media (websites)

• Koichi Miyata, Soka University, Department of Humanities "Critical Comments on Brian Victoria's "Engaged Buddhism: A Skeleton in the Closet?"

External links

• Soka Gakkai International
• Lecture by Levi McLaughlin on SGI, Princeton University
• Tokyo Fuji Art Museum
• Fired staff speak out about Japanese politics 1:07:00
• Seikyo Shimbun

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