Sorbus aucuparia
Template:Short description Template:Speciesbox
Sorbus aucuparia, commonly called rowan (Template:IPAc-en, <ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> also Template:IPAc-en) and mountain-ash, is a species of deciduous tree or shrub in the rose family.
The tree has a slender trunk with smooth bark, a loose and roundish crown, and its leaves are pinnate in pairs of leaflets on a central vein with a terminal leaflet. It blossoms from May to June in dense corymbs of small yellowish white flowers and develops small red pomes as fruit that ripen from August to October and are eaten by many bird species.
It is a highly variable species, and botanists have used different definitions of the species to include or exclude trees native to certain areas. A recent definition<ref name="McAllister">Template:Cite book</ref> includes trees native to most of Europe and parts of Asia, as well as northern Africa. The range extends from Madeira, the British Isles and Iceland to Russia and northern China. Unlike many plants with similar distributions, it is not native to Japan.<ref name="McAllister" /> The plant is frost hardy and colonizes disrupted and inaccessible places as a short-lived pioneer species.
The fruit and foliage have been used in the creation of dishes and beverages, as a folk medicine, and as fodder for livestock. Its tough and flexible wood has traditionally been used for woodworking. It is planted to fortify soil in mountain regions or as an ornamental tree and has several cultivars.
DescriptionEdit
Sorbus aucuparia is a small tree or shrub that grows up to between about Template:Cvt in height.<ref name="Schauer">Schauer 2001, p. 342</ref> The crown is loose and roundish or irregularly shaped but wide and the plant often grows multiple trunks.<ref name="Zauner">Zauner 2000, p. 52</ref><ref name="Harz">Harz 2009, p. 72</ref> A trunk is slender and cylindrical and reaches up to Template:Convert in diameter, and the branches stick out and are slanted upwards.<ref name="Kosmos">Erlbeck, Haseder, Stinglwagner 1998, p. 166</ref> The bark of a young plant is yellowish gray and gleaming and becomes gray-black with lengthwise cracks in advanced age; it descales in small flakes.<ref name="Godet94">Godet 1994, p. 52</ref><ref name="Harz" /> Lenticels in the bark are elongated and colored a bright ocher.<ref name="Godet081">Godet 2008, p. 110</ref> The plant does not often grow older than 80 years and is one of the shortest-lived trees in temperate climate.<ref name="Harz" /><ref name="Laudert57">Laudert 1999, p. 57</ref> The wood has a wide reddish white sapwood and a light brown to reddish brown heartwood. It is diffuse-porous, flexible, elastic, and tough, but not durable, with a density of Template:Convert in a dried state.<ref name="Godet94" /> The roots grow wide and deep, and the plant is capable of root sprouting and can regenerate after coppicing.<ref name="Kosmos" />
The compound leaves are pinnate with four to nine pairs of leaflets on either side of a terete central vein and with a terminal leaflet.<ref name="Godet94" /> The leaves are up to Template:Cvt long, Template:Cvt wide. They have paired leaf-like stipules at the base of the petiole,<ref name=BSBIcrib>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and are arranged alternately along a branch,<ref name="Kosmos" /> distinguishing them from those of ash, Fraxinus excelsior, which are opposite and without stipules. The leaflets are elongated-lanceolate in shape, Template:Cvt long, and Template:Cvt wide with a sharply serrated edge, and have short stems or sit close to the central vein except for the outermost leaflet.<ref name="Godet943">Godet 1994, p. 138</ref> Leaflets are covered in gray-silvery hairs after sprouting but become mostly bare after they unfold.<ref name="Mosaik">Reichholf, Steinbach 1992, p. 103</ref> Their upper side is dark green and their underside is a grayish green and felted. Young leaflets smell like marzipan when brayed.<ref name="Mosaik" /><ref name="Hecker">Hecker 1995, p. 130</ref> The leaflets are asymmetrical at the bottom.<ref name="Harz" /> The foliage grows in May and turns yellow in autumn or a dark red in dry locations.<ref name="Kosmos" /><ref name="Smolik">Smolik 1996, p. 63</ref>
The buds are often longer than Template:Cvt and have flossy to felted hairs.<ref name="Harz" /> These hairs, which disappear over time, cover dark brown to black bud scales.<ref name="Godet08" /> The terminal buds are oval and pointed and larger than axillary buds, which are narrow, oval and pointed, close to the twig, and often curved towards it.<ref name="Godet081" /><ref name="Godet08" />
The species is monoecious.<ref name="Hecker" /> It reaches maturity at age 10 and carries ample fruit almost every year.<ref name="Kosmos" /> The plant flowers from May to June (on occasion again in September) in many yellowish white corymbs that contain about 250 flowers.<ref name="Zauner" /><ref name="Kremer42">Kremer 2010, p. 42</ref><ref name="Raspe910">Raspé, Findlay, Jacquemart 2000, p. 910</ref> The corymbs are large, upright, and bulging.<ref name="Godet98">Godet 1998, p. 68</ref> The flowers are between Template:Convert in diameter and have five small, yellowish green, and triangular sepals that are covered in hairs or bare.<ref name="Godet94" /><ref name="Raspe910" /> The five round or oval petals are yellowish white and the flower has up to 25 stamens fused with the corolla to form a hypanthium and an ovary with two to five styles; the style is fused with the receptacle.<ref name="Godet94" /><ref name="Godet98" /> The flowers have an unpleasant trimethylamine smell.<ref name="Hecker" /> Their nectar is high in fructose and glucose.<ref name="Raspe910" />
Its berries are round pomes between Template:Convert in diameter that ripen from August to October.<ref name="Hecker" /> The fruit are green before they ripen and then typically turn to orange or scarlet in color. The sepals persist as a black, five-pointed star on the ripe fruit.<ref name="Kosmos" /><ref name="Kosmos2">Erlbeck, Haseder, Stinglwagner 1998, p. 167</ref> A corymb carries 80 to 100 pomes.<ref name="Garcke722">Garcke 1972, p. 722</ref> A pome contains a star-shaped ovary with two to five locules each containing one or two flat, narrow, and pointed reddish seeds.<ref name="Godet94" /><ref name="Raspe910" /> The flesh of the fruit contains carotenoids, citric acid, malic acid, parasorbic acid, pectin, provitamin A, sorbitol, tannin, and vitamin C.<ref name="Breckwoldt153" /> The seeds contain glycoside.<ref name="Hensel">Hensel 2007, p. 112</ref>
The species has a chromosome number of 2n=34.<ref name="Raspe916">Raspé, Findlay, Jacquemart 2000, p. 916</ref>
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TaxonomyEdit
Fossil recordEdit
Fossils of Sorbus aucuparia have been described from the fossil flora of Kızılcahamam district in Turkey, which is of early Pliocene age.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
NamesEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} The binomial name Sorbus aucuparia is composed of the Latin words sorbus for service tree and aucuparia, which derives from the words avis for "bird" and capere for "catching" and describes the use of the fruit of S. aucuparia as bait for fowling.<ref name="Kosmos" /> The plant is commonly known as rowan and mountain-ash,<ref name="Godet94" /> and has also been called Amur mountain-ash, European mountain-ash, quick beam, quickbeam, or rowan-berry.<ref name="GRIN">Template:GRIN</ref> The names rowan and mountain ash may be applied to other species in Sorbus subgenus Sorbus, and mountain ash may be used for several other distantly related trees. The species is not closely related to either the true ash trees (genus Fraxinus), which also carry pinnate leaves, or the species Eucalyptus regnans, also called mountain ash, native to Tasmania and Victoria in southeastern Australia.<ref name="Breckwoldt152">Breckwoldt 2011, p. 152</ref>
The common name mountain ash dates from the 16th century. It was first used by John Gerard in 1597, translating it directly from the then botanists' Latin Montana fraxinus <ref>Grigson G. 1974. A Dictionary of English Plant Names. Allen Lane Template:ISBN</ref>
S. aucuparia was previously categorized as Pyrus aucuparia.<ref name="Hora184">Hora 1993, p. 184</ref>
Sorbus aucuparia L. belongs to Carl Linnaeus.
Distribution and habitatEdit
Sorbus aucuparia is found in five subspecies:<ref name="Raspe910" /><ref name="Raspe911">Raspé, Findlay, Jacquemart 2000, p. 911</ref>
- Sorbus aucuparia subsp. aucuparia: found in most of the species' range, less in the South
- Sorbus aucuparia subsp. fenenkiana (Georgiev & Stoj.): has thin, sparsely hairy leaflets and depressed-globose fruit, restricted to Bulgaria
- Sorbus aucuparia subsp. glabrata (Wimm. & Grab.): less hairy, found in Northern Europe and Central European mountains
- Sorbus aucuparia subsp. praemorsa (Guss.): has hairy leaflets and ovoid fruit, found in Southern Italy, Sicily, and Corsica
- Sorbus aucuparia subsp. sibirica (Hedl.): nearly hairless, found in North Eastern Russia
It can be found in almost all of Europe and the Caucasus up to Northern Russia and Siberia, but it is not native to Southern Spain, Southern Greece, Sardinia{{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= Template:Fix }}, the Balearic Islands, the Azores, and the Faroe Islands.<ref name="Raspe911" /><ref name="Vetvicka">Větvička 1995, p. 200</ref> The species was introduced as an ornamental species in North America.<ref name="Raspe911" /> It is widespread from plains to mountains up to the tree line where it grows as the only deciduous tree species among krummholz.<ref name="Kosmos" /> In the Alps it grows at elevations of up to Template:Cvt.<ref name="Zauner" /> S. aucuparia appears north of the boreal forest at the arctic tree line; in Norway, it is found up to the 71st parallel north.<ref name="Godet94" /><ref name="Raspe911" /> It has naturalized in America from Washington to Alaska and eastward in Canada and the northeast of the US very successfully.
S. aucuparia is an undemanding species and can withstand shade.<ref name="Godet94" /> It is frost hardy and can tolerate winter dryness and a brief growing season.<ref name="Raspe915">Raspé, Findlay, Jacquemart 2000, p. 915</ref> The plant is also resistant to air pollution, wind, and snow pressure.<ref name="Laudert80">Laudert 1999, p. 80</ref><ref name="Laudert83">Laudert 1999, p. 83</ref> It mostly grows on soil that is moderately dry to moderately damp, acidic, low on nutrients, sandy, and loose.<ref name="Godet08">Godet 2008, p. 378</ref> It often grows in stony soil or clay soil, but also sandy soil or wet peat.<ref name="Kosmos" /> The plant grows best on fresh, loose, and fertile soil, prefers average humidity, and does not tolerate saline soil or waterlogging.<ref name="Godet94" /><ref name="Godet08" /><ref name="Aichele">Aichele, Golte-Bechtle 1997, p. 78</ref> It can be found in light woodland of all kinds and as a pioneer species over fallen dead trees or in clearcuttings, and at the edge of forests or at the sides of roads.<ref name="Kosmos" /> The seeds germinate easily, so the plant may appear on inaccessible rock, ruins, branch forks, or on hollow trees.<ref name="Kosmos" />
The tallest S. aucuparia in the United Kingdom stands in the Chiltern Hills in South East England. This exceptional specimen is Template:Cvt tall and has a trunk diameter of Template:Cvt.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Germany, an unusually large specimen is located near Wendisch Waren, a village in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. This tree stands at more than Template:Cvt tall, is around 100 years old, and has a diameter of Template:Cvt.<ref name="Ullrich">Ullrich, Kühn, Kühn 2009, p. 29</ref> The tallest known specimen in Ireland is an Template:Cvt tall specimen at Glenstal Abbey, County Limerick.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
EcologyEdit
The species is pollinated by bees and flies.<ref name="Hecker" /> Its seeds are not digested by birds and are thus propagated by being passed intact in their droppings.<ref name="Lohmann1">Lohmann 2005, p. 60</ref> The fruit are eaten by about 60 bird species and several mammals.<ref name="Laudert81">Laudert 1999, p. 81</ref> They are liked particularly by thrushes and other songbirds, and are also eaten by cloven-hoofed game, red fox, European badger, dormouse, and squirrel.<ref name="Kremer42" /><ref name="Kosmos2" /> The fruit are eaten by migratory birds in winter, including Bohemian waxwing, spotted nutcracker, and redwing.<ref name="Smolik" /> Cloven-hoofed game also excessively browse foliage and bark.<ref name="Kosmos" /> The plant roots can be found in symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal and less commonly with ectomycorrhizal fungi.<ref name="Raspe916" /><ref name="Raspe915" />
It is usually later superseded by larger forest trees.<ref name="Lohmann2">Lohmann 2005, p. 61</ref> In Central Europe it often grows in association with red elderberry, goat willow, Eurasian aspen, and silver birch.<ref name="Lohmann2" /> The plant is highly flammable and tends not to accumulate plant litter.<ref name="Raspe915" /><ref name="Raspe913">Raspé, Findlay, Jacquemart 2000, p. 913</ref>
Other species of the genus Sorbus easily hybridize with S. aucuparia and hybrid speciation can result; hybrids include Sorbus × hybrida, a small tree with oval serrated leaves and two to three pairs of leaflets, which is a hybrid with Sorbus × intermedia, and S. thuringiaca, a medium-size tree with elongated leaves and one to three pairs of leaflets that are sometimes fused at the central vein, which is a hybrid with S. aria.<ref name="Hora185">Hora 1993, p. 185–186</ref>
The main pests for S. aucuparia are the apple fruit moth Argyresthia conjugella and the mountain-ash sawfly Hoplocampa alpina.<ref name="Friedrich43">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 43</ref><ref name="Friedrich44">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 44</ref> The rust fungus Gymnosporangium cornutum produces leaf galls.<ref name="tfl">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The leaves are not palatable to insects, but are used by insect larvae, including by the moth Venusia cambrica, the case-bearer moth Coleophora anatipennella, and leaf miners of the genus Stigmella. The snail Cornu aspersum feeds on the leaves.<ref name="tfl" /> The plant can suffer from fire blight.<ref name="Flint">Flint 1997, p. 641</ref>
UsesEdit
CulinaryEdit
The fruit of S. aucuparia were used in the past to lure and catch birds. To humans, the fruit are bitter, astringent, laxative, diuretic and a cholagogue. They have vitamin C, so they prevent scurvy, but the parasorbic acid irritates the gastric mucosa.<ref name="Kosmos2" /><ref name="Aichele" /> Pharmacist Mannfried Pahlow wrote that he questioned the toxicity of the fruit but advised against consuming large amounts.<ref name="Pahlow2">Pahlow 1993, p. 106</ref> The fruit contain sorbitol, which can be used as a sugar substitute by diabetics, but its production is no longer relevant.<ref name="Laudert84">Laudert 1999, p. 84</ref> Sorbus aucuparia fruits have been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally (as tea, syrup, jelly or liqueur) for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, fever, infections, colds, flu, rheumatism and gout.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Due to their bitterness, raw rowan berries normally are not very palatable, but can be debittered and made into compote, jelly, jam, a tart syrup or chutney, pressed into juice. It is also used to make wine, liqueurs, teas, and flour.<ref name="Kosmos2" /><ref name="Henschel">Henschel 2002, p. 220</ref><ref name="Dreyer">Dreyer 2009, p. 108</ref> Fruit are served as a side dish to lamb or game.<ref name="Laudert83" /> Debittering can be accomplished by freezing, cooking, or drying, which degrades the parasorbic acid.<ref name="Pahlow2" /><ref name="Dreyer" /> The fruit are red colored in August but usually only harvested in October after the first frost by cutting the corymbs.<ref name="Breckwoldt153">Breckwoldt 2011, p. 153</ref><ref name="Pahlow1">Pahlow 1993, p. 105</ref> The robust qualities of S. aucuparia make it a source for fruit in harsh mountain climate and Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg monarchy, recommended the planting of the species in 1779.<ref name="Laudert83" /> The oldest Finnish candy still commercially produced, Pihlaja, is named after and originally contained rowanberries.
A more palatable variety, named Sorbus aucuparia var. dulcis Kraetzl, or var. edulis Dieck, or var. moravica Dippel, was first discovered in 1810 near Ostružná in the Hrubý Jeseník mountain range of Northern Moravia and became widespread in Germany and Austria the early 20th century.<ref name="Friedrich37">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 37</ref><ref name="Friedrich38">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 38</ref> Its leaves are larger and pointed, only the front part of the leaflets is serrated, and they have darker bark, larger buds and larger fruit.<ref name="Friedrich40">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 40</ref> Similar non-bitter varieties found in Southern Russia were first introduced in Central Europe in 1900 as 'Rossica' and 'Rossica Major', which has large fruit up to Template:Cvt in diameter.<ref name="Friedrich41">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 41</ref>
Two widespread cultivars of the Moravian variety are 'Konzentra' and 'Rosina', which were selected beginning in 1946 by the Institut für Gartenbau Dresden-Pillnitz, an agricultural research institute in Saxony, from 75 specimens found mostly in the Ore Mountains, and made available in 1954.<ref name="Friedrich41" /> Fruit of the more widely used 'Konzentra' are small to medium-sized, mildly aromatic and tart, easier to transport because of their thicker peel, and used for juicing, while fruit of 'Rosina' are larger, sweet and tart, and aromatic, and candied or used in compote.<ref name="Friedrich1">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 276</ref><ref name="Friedrich2">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 277</ref> The two cultivars are self-pollinating, yield fruit early, and the sugar content increases while the acid content decreases as the fruit ripen.<ref name="Fischer">Fischer 1995, p. 213</ref> 'Beissneri' is a cultivar with reddish foliage and bark and serrated leaves.<ref name="Friedrich38" /> Other edible varieties originate in and are named after Klosterneuburg, Lower Austria.<ref>Neuweiler, Röthlisberger, Rusterholz, Terrettaz 2000, p. 214</ref>
Russian botanist Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin began in 1905 to crossbreed common S. aucuparia with other species to create fruit trees. His experiments resulted in the cultivars 'Burka', 'Likjornaja', 'Dessertnaja', 'Granatnaja', 'Rubinovaja', and 'Titan'.<ref name="Friedrich41" /> Other S. aucuparia hybrids planted in Western Europe beginning in the 1980s include 'Apricot Queen', 'Brilliant Yellow', 'Chamois Glow', 'Pink Queen', and 'Salmon Queen'.<ref name="Friedrich42">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 42</ref>
The leaves were fermented with leaves of sweet gale and oak bark to create herb beer.<ref name="Laudert84" /> Fruits are eaten as a mash in small amounts against lack of appetite or an upset stomach and stimulate production of gastric acid.<ref name="Pahlow2" /> In folk medicine they are used as a laxative, against rheumatism and kidney disease, and as a gargled juice against hoarseness.<ref name="Hensel" />
TimberEdit
The wood is used for cartwright's work, turner's work, and woodcarving.<ref name="Kosmos" /> Wood can be used from trees as young as 20 years.<ref name="Lohmann2" /> The sapwood is golden and white, while the heart-wood is brown. In almost treeless regions it is used as firewood.<ref name="Hora184" /> The leaves are sometimes used as fodder for livestock while the fruit are used against erysipeloid infections in domestic pigs and goats.<ref name="Godet94" /> Bark of the plant was used to dye wool brown or red.<ref name="Laudert84" /> Honey from the flowers is strongly aromatic and has a reddish color.<ref name="Friedrich45">Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 45</ref>
The species is planted in mountain ranges to fortify landslide and avalanche zones.<ref name="Lohmann2" />
OrnamentalEdit
It is also used as an ornamental plant in parks, gardens, or as an avenue tree.<ref name="Kremer42" /> Ornamental cultivars include 'Asplenifolia', which has divided and sharply serrated leaflets, 'Blackhawk', which has large fruit and dark green foliage, 'Fastigiata', which has an upright columnar form, 'Fructu Luteo', which has orange yellow fruit, 'Michred', which has brilliant red fruit, 'Pendula', which is a weeping tree, and 'Xanthocarpa', which has orange yellow fruit.<ref name="Flint" /><ref name="Orbis">Enzyklopädie der Garten- und Zimmerpflanzen 1994, p. 572</ref><ref name="Paul141">Paul, Rees 1990, p. 141</ref>
‘Sheerwater Seedling',<ref name = RHSPF>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> an upright and slender cultivar, and 'Wisley Gold'<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> with yellow fruits, have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Cultivars are vegetatively propagated via cuttings, grafting, or shield budding.<ref name="Orbis" />
In cultureEdit
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In the Prose Edda, the Norse god Thor saves himself from a rapid river created by the giantess Gjálp by grabbing hold of a rowan, which became known as "Thor's protection".<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
In English folklore, twigs of S. aucuparia were believed to ward off evil spirits<ref name="Kosmos2" /> and witches.<ref name=Simpson>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>"Witchcraft: The Mountain Ash", in The Table Book, ed. William Hone (London, 1827), p. 337.</ref><ref>"The Mountain Ash, or Wicken or Wiggen Tree", in Lancashire Folk-lore: Illustrative of the Superstitious Beliefs and Practices, Local Customs and Usages of the People of the County Palatine, edited by John Harland and T. T. Wilkinson (London, 1867), pp. 72–74.</ref> The plant was called "the witch" in England and dowsing rods to find ores were made out of its wood.<ref name="Laudert84" /> Twigs were used to drive cattle to the pasture for the first time in spring to ensure their health and fertility.<ref name="Scherf">Scherf 2006, p. 58.</ref> The wooden shafts of forks and other farm implements were constructed from the species to protect farm animals and production from witches' spells.<ref name=Simpson/> In weather lore, a year with plentiful rowan fruit would have a good grain harvest but be followed by a severe winter.<ref name="Kosmos2" />
In Scottish folklore, boughs of rowan were traditionally taken into cattle byres in May to protect livestock from evil, and rowan trees were planted in pastures for similar purposes.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
S. aucuparia is used in the coats of arms of the German municipalities Ebernhahn, Eschenrode, and Hermsdorf, and of the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. Rowan is part of the coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan and the logo of both Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors.
FootnotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
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External linksEdit
- Sorbus aucuparia - information, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN)