Sultanate of Rum

Template:Short description Template:Infobox former country The Sultanate of RumTemplate:Efn was a culturally Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim state, established over conquered Byzantine territories and peoples (Rum) of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks following their entry into Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The name Rum was a synonym for the medieval Eastern Roman Empire and its peoples, as it remains in modern Turkish.<ref>Alexander Kazhdan, "Rūm" The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 1816. Paul Wittek, Rise of the Ottoman Empire, Royal Asiatic Society Books, Routledge (2013), p. 81: "This state too bore the name of Rûm, if not officially, then at least in everyday usage, and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name Seljuks of Rûm (Ar.: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}). A. Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran p. 215: "The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate Rûm because it had been established on territory long considered 'Roman', i.e. Byzantine, by Muslim armies."</ref> The name is derived from the Aramaic (Template:Tlit) and Parthian (Template:Tlit) names for ancient Rome, via the Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Template:Tlit) meaning the Anatolia.Template:Sfn<ref name="oxfordreference">Template:Cite book</ref>

The Sultanate of Rum seceded from the Seljuk Empire under Suleiman ibn Qutalmish in 1077. It had its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium. It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the east, the sultanate reached Lake Van. Trade through Anatolia from Iran and Central Asia was developed by a system of caravanserai. Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia: Danishmendids, House of Mengüjek, Saltukids, Artuqids.

The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate.<ref name="John Joseph Saunders 1971">John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.</ref> Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, Mesud II, was murdered in 1308. The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Anatolian beyliks (Turkish principalities), among them that of the Ottoman dynasty, which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire.

History

Establishment

Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 12.</ref> In the 1070s, after the battle of Manzikert, the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire, came to power in western Anatolia. Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of the Byzantine cities of Nicaea (present-day İznik) and briefly also Nicomedia (present-day İzmit). Around two years later, he established a principality that, while initially a Byzantine vassal state, became increasingly independent after six to ten years.<ref>Sicker, Martin, The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna, (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63–64.</ref><ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 72.</ref> Nevertheless, it seems that Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1085 to reconquer Antioch and the former travelled there on a secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines.Template:Sfn

Suleiman tried, unsuccessfully, to conquer Aleppo in 1086, and died in the Battle of Ain Salm, either fighting his enemies or by suicide.Template:Sfn In the aftermath, Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned and a general of his, Abu'l-Qasim, took power in Nicaea.<ref>Sicker, Martin, The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna , (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 65.</ref> Following the death of sultan Malik Shah in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with the approval of Malik Shah's son and successor Berkyaruq.Template:Sfn

Crusades

Kilij Arslan, although victorious against the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in Konya. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the Crusade of 1101. In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, Mehmed Tapar. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.Template:Cn

Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, Malik Shah (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I, took the city with the help of the Danishmends.Template:Cn Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia.

File:Seljuk bas-relief of two Turkic warrior. Sultanate of Rum, Konya citadel, 12th century, Turkey.jpg

Bas-relief of two Sultanate of Rum warriors. Konya citadel, 12-13th century.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.

File:Sultan Kilij Arslan II enthroned in a tile from Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156-92.jpg

Sultan Kilij Arslan II enthroned, Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156–1192.<ref name="AAT">Template:Cite book</ref>

Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II, is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of sultan<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 73.</ref> and captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire's forces of the Third Crusade, the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.<ref name="Turan244-245">Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the "beyliks", Osman Turan, The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis, (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 244–245.</ref> During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196.<ref name="Turan244-245" /><ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 29.</ref>

Following Kilij Arslan II's death, the sultanate was divided amongst his sons.Template:Sfn Elbistan was given to Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II, but when Erzurum was taken from the Saltukids at the start of the thirteenth century, he was installed there.Template:Sfn Tughril governed Erzurum from 1192 to 1221.Template:Sfn During 1211–1212, he broke free from the Seljuk state.Template:Sfn In 1230, Jahan Shah bin Tughril who was allied to the Khwarazmshah Jalal al-Din, lost the Battle of Yassıçemen, allowing for Erzurum to be annexed by the Seljuk sultanate.Template:Sfn

File:Anatolia1200.png

The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c. 1200

Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000–400,000 and encamped in the Basiani valley. Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, David Soslan. Georgian troops under David Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.<ref name="Mikaberidze184">Alexander Mikaberidze, Historical Dictionary of Georgia, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 184.</ref>Template:Bsn

Suleiman II died in 1204<ref name="Cahen42">Claude Cahen, The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth, transl. & ed. P.M. Holt, (Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 42.</ref> and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III, whose reign was unpopular.<ref name="Cahen42" /> Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign.<ref name="Cahen42" /> Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I, Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured SinopTemplate:Sfn and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214.Template:Sfn He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from al-Kamil. Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.Template:Cn

In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock, "The Saliūq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of'Alā' al-Dīn Kayqubād", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 16 (2006), pp. 133–149.</ref> In the east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids.Template:Cn

Mongol conquest

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File:Seljuks of Anatolia, horseman relief, Konya Palace, 13th century.jpg

Frieze with Sultanate of Rum horseman, Konya Palace, 1156-1192.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakır, but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols. The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Köse Dağ (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan), resulting in the Seljuk Turks being forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals.<ref name="John Joseph Saunders 1971"/> The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the battle, where he died in 1246; his death started a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.

The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak. His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

File:Anatolian Beyliks in 1300.png

The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the Mongols, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300

The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates (beyliks) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan,Template:Sfn temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. Following the ensuing chaos, the Karamanids under Shams al-Din Mehmed managed to capture Konya, briefly installing Jimri as a puppet ruler of the Sultanate of Rum. Since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, Baibars soon had to return to his home base in Egypt, and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia, as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni, from the Seljuk in the 1240s.

Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, the Pride of Islam. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II, established himself as sultan in Kayseri. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.

Culture and society

The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the Turco-Persian tradition and Greco-Roman world,<ref>Saljuqs: Saljuqs of Anatolia, Robert Hillenbrand, The Dictionary of Art, Vol.27, Ed. Jane Turner, (Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1996), 632.</ref> even to the point of naming their sons with New Persian names.<ref>Rudi Paul Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory, (University of Michigan Press, 2003), 3.</ref> The Seljuks of Rum had inherited the administrative method of Persian statecraft from the Seljuk Empire, which they would later pass on to the Ottomans.Template:Sfn Despites such influences, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Template:Multiple image As an expression of Turco-Persian culture,<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art, architecture, and literature.Template:Sfn Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay Khosrow, Kay Kawad/Qobad, and Kay Kāvus.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian.Template:Sfn In the 13th century, most Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.Template:Sfn

It was in the 13th century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, encouraged by the major influx of Persian refugees fleeing Mongol invasions, who brought Persian culture with them and were instrumental in creating a "second Iran" in Anatolia.<ref>Template:Harvnb "Inner Anatolia was now set to become Muslim gradually, and this process occurred under the leadership of the Turks. In Anatolia, as elsewhere, the Seljuq rulers drank in Persian cultural ways in their cities. This tendency to copy Iran in administration, religion and culture reached its height in the thirteenth century with the fuller development of the Seljuq state in Anatolia and the influx of Persian refugees to Anatolian cities. Thus ‘a second Iran’ was created in Anatolia. It is food for thought that, while it was the Turks who conquered and settled the land of Anatolia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, it was the Persians who were instrumental in bringing to these territories a developed Islamic religious and secular culture. (...) Quote in French: Les réfugiés iraniens qui entrèrent en grand nombre en Anatolie à la suite des invasions mongoles de l’Iran – les fonctionnaires, les poètes, les Sufis et, avant tout, les cadres religieux – transformèrent de l’intérieur la culture urbaine de cette région."</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Iranian cultural, political, and literary traditions deeply influenced Anatolia in the early 13th century.Template:Sfn The notable historian Ibn Bibi composed a six-volume Persian language poetic work called the Selçukname, modeled after the Shahnamah, which focused on the Seljuk sultans.Template:Sfn

File:Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, Kubadabad.jpg

Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, Kubadabad.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.Template:Sfn Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.Template:Sfn Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II, as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.Template:Sfn Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.Template:Sfn Persian poetry was written by sultans Suleiman II, Kayqubad I, and Kaykhusraw II.Template:Sfn Written documents used either Persian or Anatolian Turkic, but the army used the Turkic language exclusively.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Rahat al-sudur, the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I.Template:Sfn Even the Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq, an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.Template:Sfn The sultans of Rum were largely not educated in Arabic.Template:Sfn This clearly limited the Arab influence, or at least the direct influence, to a relatively small degree.Template:Sfn In contrast, Persian literature and Iranian influence expanded because most sultans and even a significant portion of the townspeople knew the language.Template:Sfn

One of its most famous Persian writers, Rumi, took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.<ref>Template:Citation</ref><ref>Template:Citation</ref> Based on their genealogy, it appears that the Seljuk sultans favored Christian slave-concubines, just like the early Ottoman sultans. Within the Seljuk harem, Greek women were the most dominant.<ref>A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 121.</ref> Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans.Template:Sfn With a population that included Byzantine Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Turks, and Persians, the Seljuks were very successful between 1220 and 1250 and set the groundwork for later Islamization of Anatolia.Template:Sfn

Architecture

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File:Konya citadel (Plate 116b, Voyage de l'Asie Mineure, 1838).jpg

The Konya citadel (city walls of Konya), built and decorated by Kayqubad I in the 1220s, incorporated many Greco-Roman Classical elements for its decoration. Léon de Laborde, 1838

Architectural styles of the Sultanate of Rum were rather eclectic. The walls of Konya in particular, built by Kayqubad I (r.1220–1237), adopted many western decorative elements, such as a statue of Hercules, a frieze from a Roman sarcophagus, courtly scenes with seated figures in toga, winged deities around the figure of the sun, mixed with inscriptions in Arabic.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It would seem that such symbolism mixing Western and Eastern elements was mostly derived from the influence of the Artuqids, who were adept at combining Classical and Perso-Islamic approaches.<ref name="SY">Template:Cite journal</ref>

In their construction of caravanserais, madrasas and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.<ref>Template:Citation</ref> Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,<ref>Architecture (Muhammadan), H. Saladin, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.</ref> Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine architects, for example in the Celestial Mosque in Sivas, and by Armenian architecture.<ref>Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods, Robert Bedrosian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.</ref> Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressiveTemplate:Opinion constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India.<ref>Lost in Translation: Architecture, Taxonomy, and the "Eastern Turks", Finbarr Barry Flood, Muqarnas: History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "Lands of Rum, 96.</ref>

File:Gok Medresesi1.jpg

Gök Medrese (Celestial Madrasa) of Sivas, built by a Greek (Rûm) subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum in 1271

The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han (built-in 1229) on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of Sultanhanı, covering Template:Convert. Two caravanserais carry the name Sultan Han, the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal, Durağan, Hekimhan and Kadınhanı, as well as the township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the tower, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac, since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I's doctor (hekim), who is thought to have been a Christian convert to Islam.

There are other particular cases, like the settlement in Kalehisar contiguous to an ancient Hittite site near Alaca, founded by the Seljuk commander Hüsameddin Temurlu, who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as several documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.Template:Cn

The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghilmān (Template:Langx), singular ghulam), slave-soldiers taken as children from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghilmān may have offered a model for the later devşirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Literature

File:Gulshah (right) disguised as a man, watches as her lover Varqa (centre) and his rival Rabi fight on horseback.jpg

Battle scene in Varka and Golshah, 1225–1250 miniature, Konya, Sultanate of Rum.<ref>These knights were equipped with long swords and bows, and for protection used large shields ("kite-shields"), lamellar armour and hauberk mail Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="AAOS">Template:Cite journal</ref>

The earliest known illustrated manuscript in the Persian language is an early 13th century copy of the epic Varka and Golshah, which was most probably created in Konya, under the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.<ref>Template:Harvnb "The earliest illustrated Persian manuscript, signed by an artist from Khuy in north-west Iran, was produced between 1225 and 1250, almost certainly in Konya. (Cf. A. S. Melikian-Chirvani, ‘Le roman de Varqe et Golsâh’, Arts Asiatiques XXII (Paris, 1970))"</ref><ref name="SSB">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> It can be dated to circa 1250.<ref name="JB214">Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The miniatures represent typical Central Asian people, thickset with large round heads.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> They also provide rare depictions of the contemporary military of the Seljuk period, and may have influenced other known depictions of Turkic Seljuk soldiers.<ref name="RE">Template:Cite book</ref> All depicted costumes and accoutrements are contemporary to the artist, in the 13th century CE.<ref name="AAOS"/> The miniatures constitute the first known example of illustrated Persian-language manuscript, dating from the pre-Mongol era, and are useful in studying weapons of the period.<ref name="AAOS">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Particularly, metal face masks and chainmail helmets in Turkic fashion, and armor with small metal plates connected through straps, large round shields (the largest of them called "kite-shields") and long teardrop shields, armoured horses are depicted.<ref name="AAOS"/> The weapons and armour types depicted in the miniatures were common in the Middle East and the Caucasus in the Seljuk era.<ref name="AAOS"/>

Numismatics

The earliest documented Rum Seljuq copper coins were made in the first part of the twelfth century in Konya and the eastern Anatolian emirates.Template:Sfn Extensive numismatic evidence suggests that, starting in the middle of the thirteenth century and continuing until the end of the Seljuk dynasty, silver-producing mints and silver coinage flourished, particularly in central and eastern Anatolia.Template:Sfn

File:Suleyman II of Rum, Qunya, 597 H (1200-1201).jpg

Gold coinage of Suleiman II of Rum, Konya, 597 H (1200–1201 CE)

Most of Kilij Arslan II's coins were minted in Konya between 1177–78 and 1195, with a small amount also occurring in Sivas, which the Rum Seljuks conquered from the Danishmendids.Template:Sfn Sivas may have started minting coins in 1185–1186.Template:Sfn The majority of Kılıj Arslan II's coins are silver dirhams; however, there are also a few dinars and one or two fulūs (small copper coins) issues.Template:Sfn Following his death the sultanate was divided among his sons. Muhyiddin Mesut, son of Kilij Arslan II, minted coins in the northwesterly cities of Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir, and Kaztamunu from 1186 to 1200.Template:Sfn Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II's reign in Erzurum, another son of Kilij Arslan II, minted silver dirhams in 1211–1212.Template:Sfn

File:Kaykhusraw II dirham.jpg

Dirham of Kaykhusraw II, minted at Sivas, 1240–1241 AD

The sun-lion and the equestrian are the two central motifs in the Rum Seljuq numismatic figural repertoire.Template:Sfn The image of a horseman with two more arrows ready and his bow taut represents strength and control and is a representation of the ideal Seljuq king of the Great Age.Template:Sfn The image initially appeared on Rum Seljuq copper coins in the late eleventh century.Template:Sfn The first to add equestrian iconography to silver and gold coins was Suleiman II of Rûm(r. 1196–1204).Template:Sfn Antalya minted coins with Kaykaus I's name from November 1261 to November 1262.Template:Sfn Between 1211 and 1219, the bulk of his coins are minted at Konya and Sivas.Template:Sfn

A significant portion of the Islamic Near East may have experienced a "silver famine" owing to little, or very little, silver mintings from the eleventh and most of the twelfth centuries. However, at the start of the thirteenth century a "silver flood" occurred in Rum Seljuq territory when Anatolian silver mines were discovered.Template:Sfn The fineness of Rum Seljuq dirhams is similar to that of dinars; frequently, both were struck using the same dies.Template:Sfn The Seljuq silver coinage's superior quality and prominence contributed to the dynasty's affluence throughout the early part of the thirteenth century and explains why it served as a kind of anchor for the local "currency community."Template:Sfn The Empire of Trebizond and Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia silver coins were modeled after the fineness and weight specifications of Rum Seljuq coins.Template:Sfn

Dynasty

File:Double-headed eagle, with al-Sultan inscription on the chest. Kubadabad, 1220s.jpg

Double-headed eagle, with "al-Sultan" inscription on the chest. Kubadabad Palace, 1220s.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Template:History of Turkey Template:History of the Turks pre-14th century As regards with the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alâeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as "Alaiye". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex (külliye) dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe, was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.Template:Cn

Sultan	Reign	Notes
1. Qutalmish	1060–1064	Contended with Alp Arslan for succession to the Imperial Seljuk throne.
2. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish	1075–1077 de facto rules Turkmen around İznik and İzmit; 1077–1086 recognised Sultan of Rûm by Malik-Shah I of the Great Seljuks	Founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate with capital in İznik
3. Kilij Arslan I	1092–1107	First sultan in Konya
4. Malik Shah	1107–1116
5. Mesud I	1116–1156
6. 'Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan II	1156–1192
7. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I	1192–1196	First reign
8. Rukn al-Din Suleiman II	1196–1204
9. Kilij Arslan III	1204–1205
(7.) Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I	1205–1211	Second reign
10. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us I	1211–1220
11. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I	1220–1237
12. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II	1237–1246	After his death, sultanate split until 1260 when Kilij Arslan IV remained the sole ruler
13. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us II	1246–1262
14. Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV	1249–1266
15. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad II	1249–1254
16. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III	1266–1284
17. Giyath al-Din Masud II	1282–1296	First reign
18. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad III	1298–1302
(17.) Giyath al-Din Masud II	1303–1308	Second reign

Family tree

The colors of the boxes are as follows
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Comparative genealogy

The comparative genealogy of the Sultanate of Rûm with their contemporary neighbors in Central Asia

The list of important historical events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chaghri Beg defeated Shah-Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm . . Establishment . Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 . . . . . . . The First Crusade Crusade of 1101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second Crusade . . . ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon . Third Crusade . Ala ad-Din Tekish-Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray, Khorasan in 1194 . Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks . Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu in the Battle of Yassıçimen in 1230 . Chormaqan defeated Mangubartī in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs . Babai Revolt . Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire . Güyük designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248 Triple reign (1249–1254)<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/> Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256 Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Möngke Khan in 1258/1259 . Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18, 1294 . Ottoman State emerged in Söğüt, Bilecik in 1299 . Disestablishment period of The Anatolian Seljuks . Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336

See also

• Babai Revolt
• Byzantine–Seljuk Wars
• List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire
• Rûm Eyalet, Ottoman Empire

Sources

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External links

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