Syria Palaestina

Template:Short description Template:Use dmy dates Template:Pp Template:Infobox Former Subdivision

Syria Palaestina (Template:Langx {{#invoke:IPA|main}}) was the renamed Roman province formerly known as Judaea, following the Roman suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, in what then became known as the Palestine region between the early 2nd and late 4th centuries AD. The provincial capital was Caesarea Maritima.<ref name= Bryce>Bryce, Trevo (2009), The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia</ref><ref name= Vaux>de Vaux, Roland (1978), The Early History of Israel, p. 2: "After the revolt of Bar Cochba in 135, the Roman province of Judaea was renamed Palestinian Syria."</ref> It forms part of timeline of the period in the region referred to as Roman Palestine.<ref name= RoPalEB>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

BackgroundEdit

Template:Further Judaea was a Roman province that incorporated the regions of Judea, Samaria, Idumea, and Galilee and extended over parts of the former regions of Hasmonean and Herodian Judea. It was named after Herod's Tetrarchy of Judaea, but Roman Judaea encompassed a much larger territory than Judaea. The name "Judaea" ultimately traces to the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah.

Following the deposition of Herod Archelaus in 6 AD, Judea came under direct Roman rule,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> during which time the Roman governor was given authority to punish by execution. The general population also began to be taxed by Rome.<ref>Josephus, De Bello Judaico (Wars of the Jews) 2.8.1 Template:Webarchive.</ref> However, Jewish leaders retained broad discretion over affairs within Judaism.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

The Herodian kingdom was split into a tetrarchy in 6 AD, which was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis. The capital of Judaea was shifted from Jerusalem to Caesarea Maritima, which, according to historian Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson, had been the "administrative capital" of the region beginning in 6 AD.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

HistoryEdit

During the 1st and 2nd centuries, Judaea became the epicenter of a series of unsuccessful large-scale Jewish rebellions against Rome, known as the Jewish-Roman Wars. The Roman suppression of these revolts led to wide-scale destruction, a very high toll of life and enslavement. The First Jewish-Roman War (66–73) resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple.<ref name= Westw>Template:Cite journal</ref> Two generations later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136) erupted. Judea's countryside was devastated, and many were killed, displaced or sold into slavery.<ref name= Taylor1>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Eck, Werner. "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen" (in German), Novum Testamentum 55 (2.13), pp. 1–21.</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name= Mor>Template:Cite book</ref> Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt.<ref>Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.</ref>

Following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony under the name of Aelia Capitolina, and Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina,<ref name= BSass>Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, Template:ISBN, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."</ref><ref name= Lewin>Lewin, Ariel (2005). The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications, p. 33. Template:ISBN. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name - one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus - Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land."</ref> a term occasionally used among Greco-Romans for centuries to describe the Southern Levant.<ref name="Jacob2001">Template:Harvnb</ref>^A Syria-Palaestina included Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Idumaea, and Philistia. The province retained its capital, Caesarea Maritima, and therefore remained distinct from Syria, which was located further north with its capital in Antioch. Jerusalem, which held special religious significance for the Jews but had been destroyed, was rebuilt as the colonia Aelia Capitolina. Jews were forbidden to settle there or in the immediate vicinity.

While Syria was divided into several smaller provinces by Septimius Severus, and later again by Diocletian, Syria Palaestina survived into late antiquity. Presumably, it was small enough not to become dangerous as a potential starting point for usurpation attempts. Instead, Diocletian even integrated parts of Arabia Petraea into the province, namely the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula. He moved the Legio X Fretensis from Aelia Capitolina to Aila (today's Eilat/Aqaba) to secure the country against Arab incursions. The part of the Roman imperial border that now ran through Palestine was subsequently placed under its own supreme commander, the dux Palaestinae, who is known from the Notitia Dignitatum.<ref>Notitia Dignitatum, Chapter 34.</ref> The border wall, the Limes Arabicus, which had existed for some time, was pushed further south.<ref>Keel, Othmar; Küchler, Max; Uehlinger, Christoph (1984). Orte und Landschaften der Bibel. Ein Handbuch und Studien-Reiseführer zum Heiligen Land. Vol. 1: Geographisch-geschichtliche Landeskunde (in German). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttinge, Template:ISBN, p. 281 f. Template:Dead link</ref>

The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284) affected Syria Palaestina, but the fourth century brought an economic upswing due to the Christianization of the Roman Empire and the associated upswing in Christian pilgrimage to the "Holy Land". In the course of late antiquity, with imperial support, Christianity succeeded in asserting itself against both remnants of Semitic as well as trending Hellenistic Paganism in the land.

The province was split into smaller ones during the fourth and fifth centuries. In 358, areas that had formerly belonged to Arabia Petraea were transformed into a separate province of Palaestina Salutaris with Petra as its capital. The remaining territory was named Palaestina Prima.<ref name= YDan>Template:Cite journal</ref> Around the year 400, it had been further split into a smaller Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda. Palaestina Prima included the heartland with the capital at Caesarea, while Palaestina Secunda extended to Galilee, the Golan, and parts of the Transjordan and its capital was Scythopolis (now Beit She'an).<ref name= DNP162>>Pahlitzsch, Johannes (2000). Palaestina III: Römische und byzantinische Zeit (in German). In: Der Neue Pauly (DNP). Vol. 9, Metzler, Stuttgart, Template:ISBN, Sp. 160–162, here Sp. 162.</ref> Salutaris was named Palaestina Tertia or Salutaris.<ref name= YDan/>

NameEdit

Template:Further

The name Syria Palaestina was introduced by the Roman authorities in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 AD), when the province of Judaea was renamed. Most scholars interpret this renaming as a deliberate attempt by the Roman to suppress Jewish identification with the land and to erase the province's association with the Jewish people.<ref name="PU"> Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb</ref> While the Romans frequently renamed provinces for administrative or political reasons, the renaming of Judaea is widely regarded as unique, as the only known case where a province's name was changed explicitly as a punitive response to a rebellion.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn

The precise date and motivations behind the name change remain uncertain, though circumstantial evidence points to Emperor Hadrian's involvement.<ref name="F902" /> Coins issued by Hadrian before the revolt still refer to Judaea,Template:Sfn while a military diploma from 139 CE already uses the new name.Template:Sfn The former name carried a clear ethnic association with the Jewish people, whereas the new designation was devoid of explicit ethnic connotations.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The renaming coincided with broader Roman efforts to suppress Jewish national identity, including the imposition of restrictions on Jewish religious practices, the expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem and its surrounding areas, and the refounding of the city as Aelia Capitolina.<ref name="F902">Template:Harvnb: "While it is true that there is no evidence as to precisely who changed the name of Judaea to Palestine and precisely when this was done, circumstantial evidence would seem to point to Hadrian himself, since he is, it would seem, responsible for a number of decrees that sought to crush the national and religious spirit of the Jews, whether these decrees were responsible for the uprising or were the result of it. In the first place, he refounded Jerusalem as a Graeco-Roman city under the name of Aelia Capitolina. He also erected on the site of the Temple another temple to Zeus."</ref><ref name="Lehmann32">Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>Template:Sfn

Classicist Louis Feldman writes that the aim was to "obliterate the Jewish character of the land, with the name of the nearest tribe being applied to the entire area", writing that the term Palestina had previously referred mainly to the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines in the Iron Age and that early Roman authors typically distinguished it from Judaea; By applying the name of a neighboring people—the Philistines—to the entire region, the Roman authorities sought to symbolically sever the connection between the Jews and their ancestral homeland.Template:Sfn Historian Ze'ev Safrai writes that the renaming was motivated by the "effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land."Template:Sfn Historian Werner Eck writes that the renaming was a deliberate and exceptional act of punishment. He rejects demographic explanations—pointing to rebellious provinces such as Germania, Pannonia, and Britannia, which retained their names despite revolts and population loss—and emphasizes that Judaea alone lost its ethnically derived name as a symbolic measure to punish the Jews and sever their connection to the land.Template:Sfn

Alongside the dominating explanation of the renaming as a punishment, there are also other theories. David Jacobson suggests that the renaming may have been a practical choice, intended to reflect that the Roman province encompassed a much larger area than the traditional district of Judea, and to draw on a name with ancient regional associations.Template:Sfn He also notes that the name was historically linked to the broader region of greater Israel.Template:Sfn The name Syria-Palaestina was already in use in the Greco-Roman world at least five centuries earlier. Herodotus, for example, used the term in the 5th century BC when discussing the component parts of the fifth province of the Achaemenid Empire: Phoenicia, Cyprus, "and that part of Syria which is called Palestine".<ref>The term Syria-Palaestina was already in use in the Greco-Roman world at least five centuries earlier. Herodotus, for example, used the term in the 5th century BC when discussing the component parts of the fifth province of the Achaemenid Empire: Phoenicia, Cyprus, "and that part of Syria which is called Palestine" (Template:Langx). "The full Herodotus quote is "from the town of Posideion, which was founded by Amphilocus son of Amphiaraus, on the border between Cilicia and Syria, beginning from this as far as Egypt —omitting Arabian territory (which was free of tax), came 350 talents. In this province there is the whole of Phoenicia and that part of Syria which is called Palestine, and Cyprus. This is the fifth province" Template:Cite journal</ref> Historian Seth Schwartz writes that the name was intended to "celebrate the de-Judaization of the province."Template:Sfn Historian Ronald Syme suggested the name change preceded the revolt, possibly reflecting "Hadrian's decided opinions about Jews."Template:Sfn

Some authors in late antiquity, such as Galen, Celsus, Dio Cassius, Origen, Eusebius and Jerome continued to refer to Judaea out of habit due to the prominent association with the Jews.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn This includes an inscription from Ephesos from AD 170–180, honoring the wife of a figure known as "Eroelius Klaros", who had the epithet "ruler of Judaea" ("[Ερο]υκίου Κλάρου, υπάτου, [ηγ]εμόνος Ιουδ[αίας]"), decades after the recreation of Provincia Judaea as Syria-Palaestina.<ref>Smallwood, E. Mary. The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian: A Study in Political Relations. Apendix A. 1. The Governors of Judaea and Syria Palaestina after A.D. 70., p. 552.</ref>

Despite this "Syria" in the name, Palestine was independent of Roman Syria, even to a greater extent than before, since instead of a legatus Augusti pro praetore, a higher-ranking governor of consular rank now presided over the region. This in turn was probably due to the fact that in addition to the already existing legion in Caesarea, a second legion was stationed in Legio, increasing the military importance of the province. Exactly when the legion was moved and the rank of the governor's post increased is a matter of debate – in any case, these events must have occurred before the governorship of Quintus Tineius Rufus, who took office no later than 130.<ref>Eck, Werner (1999). Rom und die Provinz Iudaea/Syria Palaestina. Der Beitrag der Epigraphik (in German). In: Aharon Oppenheimer (ed.): Jüdische Geschichte in hellenistisch-römischer Zeit. Wege der Forschung: Vom alten zum neuen Schürer (= Schriften des Historischen Kollegs. Kolloquien. Vol. 44). Oldenbourg, München, Template:ISBN, pp. 237–264, here pp. 246–250 (where, however, the latest possible start year of governorship is seen as being 132).</ref>

DemographicsEdit

Template:Further The population of Syria-Palaestina was of mixed character.<ref name="Krämer">Template:Cite book</ref>

The aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt resulted in severe devastation for Judaea's Jewish population, including significant loss of life, forced displacements, and widespread enslavement. The scale of suffering was immense, with ancient sources reporting extensive destruction and high casualty rates. It appears that at the end of the revolt, Jewish settlement in Judaea Proper had nearly been eradicated, but remained strong in other parts of Palestine.<ref name="CHJ">Template:Cite book</ref><ref name="DBar2003">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Taylor2">Taylor, Joan (1990). A critical investigation of archaeological material assigned to Palestinian Jewish-Christians of the Roman and Byzantine periods.</ref><ref>Bar, Doron (2008). Continuity and change in the cultic topography of late antique Palestine</ref> Jewish survivors faced harsh Roman punitive measures, including expulsion from Jerusalem and other areas, leading to a migration to Galilee and Golan.<ref>Miller, 1984, p. 132</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb: "Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it."</ref><ref name=":6">Template:Cite journal</ref> Some scholars suggest that a number of Jews may have forfeited their Jewish identity and assimilated into the Pagan and early Christian I.e. Gentile populations.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Many Jewish captives were sold into slavery across the Roman Empire, contributing to an increase in the Jewish diaspora.<ref name="Powell, p.8122">Powell, The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.81</ref>

According to Eitan Klein, after the revolt, Roman authorities confiscated lands in Judaea, leading to the resettlement of the region by a diverse population. Archaeological evidence shows that gentile migrants from neighboring Levantine provinces such as Arabia, Syria, and Phoenicia, as well as from the coastal plain and beyond, settled in the area. The new Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina was populated by Roman veterans and migrants from western parts of the empire, who also occupied its surroundings, administrative centers, and main roads.<ref name="Klein">Klein, Eitan (2010). "The Origins of the Rural Settlers in Judean Mountains and Foothills during the Late Roman Period", in: E. Baruch, A. Levy-Reifer and A. Faust (eds.), New Studies on Jerusalem, Vol. 16, Ramat-Gan, pp. 321-350 (in Hebrew).</ref> According to Lichtenberger, archaeological evidence from Bayt Nattif suggests a persistence of non-conformist unorthodox Jewish groups that did not adhere to strict Biblical monotheism, as well as remnants of semitic pagan groups related to those of Yahwahist Iron Age Judah in the late Roman period.<ref>Lichtenberger, Achim. "Jews and Pagans in Late Antique Judaea. The Case of the Beit Nattif Workshop." R. Raja (ed.), Contextualizing the Sacred in the Hellenistic and Roman Near East, Religious Identities in Local, Regional, and Imperial Settings (Contextualizing the Sacred 8; Turnhout) (2017): 191–211. Print.</ref>

In AD 300, Jews formed around a quarter of the population and lived in compact settlements in Galilee, while Samaritans were concentrated in Samaria.<ref name="Krämer"/><ref name= Kessler>Template:Cite book</ref> By the fifth century, Christianity had gained further ground in the region, and Christians formed a majority in Palestine and Jerusalem through migration and conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews.<ref name="Krämer"/><ref name= CHJ/><ref name= DBar2003/>

ReligionEdit

Roman Imperial cultEdit

After the Jewish–Roman wars (66–135), which Epiphanius believed the Cenacle survived,<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (A.D. 71-1099) Template:Webarchive: "Epiphanius (died 403) says..."</ref> the significance of Jerusalem to Christians entered a period of decline, it having been destroyed and later refounded as the pagan colonia of Aelia Capitolina. Christian interest resumed again with the pilgrimage of Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, c. 326–28.Template:Citation needed

New pagan cities were founded in Judea at Eleutheropolis (now Bayt Jibrin), Diopolis (now Lod), and Nicopolis.<ref name= Shahinp7>Shahin, Mariam (2005) Palestine: a Guide. Interlink Books Template:ISBN, p. 7</ref><ref name= PalEB>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>

The Hellenization of Palaestina continued under Septimius Severus (193–211 AD).<ref name="Shahinp7" />

Early ChristianityEdit

The Romans destroyed the Jewish community of the Church in Jerusalem, which had existed since the time of Jesus.<ref>Whealey, J. (2008) "Eusebius and the Jewish Authors: His Citation Technique in an Apologetic Context" (Journal of Theological Studies; Vol 59: 359-362)</ref>Template:Verify source Traditionally it is believed the Jerusalem Christians waited out the Jewish–Roman wars in Pella in the Decapolis.Template:Citation needed

The line of Jewish bishops in Jerusalem, which is claimed to have started with James, brother of Jesus as its first bishop, ceased to exist within the Empire. Hans Küng in Islam: Past Present and Future, suggests that the Jewish Christians sought refuge in the Arabian Peninsula and he quotes with approval Clemen et al., "This produces the paradox of truly historic significance that while Jewish Christianity was swallowed up in the Christian church, it preserved itself in Islam."<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

ReorganizationEdit

In circa 390, Syria Palaestina was reorganised into several administrative units: Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda, and Palaestina Tertia (in the 6th century),<ref name= NYT>Template:Cite news</ref> Syria Prima and Phoenice and Phoenice Lebanensis. All were included within the larger Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Diocese of the East, together with the provinces of Isauria, Cilicia, Cyprus (until 536), Euphratensis, Mesopotamia, Osroene, and Arabia Petraea.Template:Citation needed

Palaestina Prima consisted of Judaea, Samaria, the Paralia and Peraea,Template:Failed verification with the governor residing in Caesarea. Palaestina Secunda consisted of the Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley, the regions east of Galilee, and the western part of the former Decapolis,Template:Failed verification with the seat of government at Scythopolis.<ref name= RoPalEB/> Palaestina Tertia included the Negev, southern Transjordan part of Arabia, and most of Sinai, with Petra as the usual residence of the governor. Palaestina Tertia was also known as Palaestina Salutaris.<ref name= Salutaris>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>