Tassili n'Ajjer

Template:Short description Template:For Template:Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site

Tassili n'Ajjer (Berber: Tassili n Ajjer, Template:Langx; "Plateau of rivers") is a mountain range in the Sahara desert, located in south-eastern Algeria. It holds one of the most important groupings of prehistoric cave art in the world,<ref name="Unesco">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and covers an area of more than Template:Convert,<ref name=brit>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The site has been designated a national park and a Biosphere Reserve, and was inducted into the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1982.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The literal English translation of Tassili n'Ajjer is 'plateau of rivers'.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

GeographyEdit

Tassili n'Ajjer is a plateau in south-eastern Algeria at the borders of Libya and Nigeri, covering an area of 72,000 km².<ref name="Unesco" /> It ranges from Template:Coord east-south-east to Template:Coord. Its highest point is the Adrar Afao that peaks at Template:Convert, located at Template:Coord. The nearest town is Djanet, about Template:Convert to the south-west.

The plateau is of great geological and aesthetic interest. Its panorama of geological formations of rock forests, composed of eroded sandstone, resembles a lunar landscape and hosts a range of rock art styles.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

GeologyEdit

File:Dunes at Tassili n'Ajjer.jpg

Aerial photograph of Tassili n'Ajjer

The range is composed largely of sandstone.<ref name="readersnatural">Template:Cite book</ref> The sandstone is stained by a thin outer layer of deposited metallic oxides that colour the rock formations variously from near-black to dull red.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Erosion in the area has resulted in nearly 300 natural rock arches being formed in the south east, along with deep gorges and permanent water pools in the north.

EcologyEdit

Tassili n'Ajjer lies within the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands ecoregion. Due to the higher elevation of the area, coupled with the water-retentive properties of the sandstone, the vegetation here is somewhat more lush and verdant than in the lower regions of desert; in turn, this creates an attractive habitat for numerous animal species, from the smallest invertebrates, up the food chain to mammals. The park features an open woodland, primarily consisting of the endangered and endemic Saharan cypress and Saharan myrtle, in its higher-elevation eastern half.<ref name="readersnatural" /> The Tassili cypress is one of the longest-living trees and organisms on Earth, after the bristlecone pines of the Western US.<ref name=":0" />

An isolated population of the West African crocodile survived in Tassili n'Ajjer until the twentieth century; today, the species is primarily found in more tropical and sub-Saharan regions of Western and Central Africa, from Senegal to Chad.<ref>"Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert: An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation Planning in Mauritania Template:Webarchive". PLOS ONE. 25 February 2011.</ref> The aoudad, or Barbary sheep, is the only extant species of animal depicted in the area's ancient rock artwork.<ref name="readersnatural" />

The park has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports significant populations of spotted, crowned and Lichtenstein's sandgrouse, Pharaoh eagle-owls, greater hoopoe-larks, bar-tailed and desert larks, pale rock martins, fulvous babblers, white-crowned and mourning wheatears, desert sparrows and trumpeter finches.<ref name=bli>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

ArchaeologyEdit

BackgroundEdit

Algerian rock art has been subject to European study since 1863, with surveys conducted by "A. Pomel (1893–1898), Stéphane Gsell (1901–1927), G. B. M. Flamand (1892–1921), Leo Frobenius and Hugo Obermaier (1925), Henri Breuil (1931–1957), L. Joleaud (1918–1938), and Raymond Vaufrey (1935–1955)."<ref name=":1">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Tassili was already well known by the early 20th century, but Westerners were broadly introduced to it through a series of sketches made by French legionnaires, particularly Lieutenant Charles Brenans in the 1930s.<ref name=":1" /> He brought with him French archaeologist Henri Lhote, who would later return during 1956–1957, 1959, 1962, and 1970.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Lhote's expeditions have been heavily criticized, with his team accused of faking images and of damaging paintings in brightening them for tracing and photography, which resulted in reducing the original colors beyond repair.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Current archaeological interpretationEdit

The site of Tassili was primarily occupied during the Neolithic period by transhumant pastoralist groups whose lifestyle benefited both humans and livestock. The local geography, elevation, and natural resources were optimal conditions for dry-season camping of small groups. The wadis within the mountain range functioned as corridors between the rocky highlands and the sandy lowlands. The highlands have archaeological evidence of occupation dating from 5500 to 1500 BCE, while the lowlands have stone tumuli and hearths dating between 6000 and 4000 BCE. The lowland locations appear to have been used as living sites, specifically during the rainy season.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There are numerous rock shelters within the sandstone forests, strewn with Neolithic artifacts including ceramic pots and potsherds, lithic arrowheads, bowls and grinders, beads, and jewelry.<ref name=":0" />

The transition to pastoralism following the African Humid period during the early Holocene is reflected in Tassili n'Ajjer's archaeological material record, rock art, and zooarchaeology. Further, the occupation of Tassili is part of a larger movement and climate shift within the Central Sahara. Paleoclimatic and paleoenvironment studies started in the Central Sahara around 14,000 BP and then proceeded by an arid period that resulted in narrow ecological niches.<ref name=":2">Template:Cite journal</ref> However, the climate was not consistent and the Sahara was split between the arid lowlands and the humid highlands. Archaeological excavations confirm that human occupation, in the form of hunter-gather groups, occurred between 10,000 and 7500 BP; following 7500 BP, humans began to organize into pastoral groups in response to the increasingly unpredictable climate.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> There was a dry period from 7900 and 7200 BP in Tassili<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> that preceded the appearance of the first pastoral groups, which is consistent with other parts of the Saharan-Sahelian belt.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The pre-Pastoral pottery excavated from Tassili dates around 9,000–8,500 BP, while the Pastoral pottery is from 7100–6000 BP.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

The rock art at Tassili is used in conjunction with other sites, including Dhar Tichitt in Mauritania,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> to study the development of animal husbandry and trans-Saharan travel in North Africa. Cattle were herded across vast areas as early as 3000–2000 BCE, reflecting the origins and spread of pastoralism in the area. This was followed by horses (before 1000 BCE) and then the camel in the next millennium.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The arrival of camels reflects the increased development of trans-Saharan trade, as camels were primarily used as transport in trade caravans.

Prehistoric artEdit

The rock formation is an archaeological site, noted for its numerous prehistoric parietal works of rock art, first reported in 1910,<ref name=brit/> that date to the early Neolithic era at the end of the last glacial period during which the Sahara was a habitable savanna rather than the current desert. Although sources vary considerably, the earliest pieces of art are presumed to be 12,000 years old.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The vast majority date to the ninth and tenth millennia BP or younger, according to OSL dating of associated sediments.<ref name=Mercier_OSLdating>Template:Cite journal</ref> The art was dated by gathering small fragments of the painted panels that had dried out and flaked off before being buried.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Among the 15,000 engravings so far identified, the subjects depicted are large wild animals including antelopes and crocodiles, cattle herds, and humans who engage in activities such as hunting and dancing.<ref name="readersnatural" /> These paintings are some of the earliest by Central Saharan artists, and occur in the largest concentration at Tassili.<ref name=":2" /> Although Algeria is relatively close to the Iberian Peninsula, the rock art of Tassili n'Ajjer evolved separately from that of the European tradition.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> According to UNESCO, "The exceptional density of paintings and engravings...have made Tassili world famous."<ref name=UNESCO>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Similar to other Saharan sites with rock art, Tassili can be separated into five distinct traditions: Archaic (10,000 to 7500 BCE), Round Head (7550 to 5050 BCE), Bovidian or Pastoral (4500 to 4000 BCE), Horse (from 2000 BCE and 50 CE), and Camel (1000 BCE and onward).

The Archaic period consists primarily of wild animals that lived in the Sahara during the Early Holocene. These works are attributed to hunter-gather peoples, consisting of only etchings. Images are primarily of larger animals, depicted in a naturalistic manner, with the occasional geometric pattern and the human figure. Usually, the humans and animals are depicted within the context of a hunting scene.

The Round Head Period is associated with specific stylistic choices depicting humanoid forms and is well separated from the Archaic tradition even though hunter-gatherers were the artists for both.<ref>Muzzolini, Alfred (2001). Whitley, David (ed.). ""Saharan Africa"". Handbook of Rock Art Research. Altamira Press: 605–636.</ref> The art consists mainly of paintings, with some of the oldest and largest exposed rock paintings in Africa; one human figure stands over five meters and another at three and a half meters. The unique depiction of floating figures with round, featureless heads and formless bodies appear to be floating on the rock surface, hence the "Round Head" label. The occurrence of these paintings and motifs are concentrated in specific locations on the plateau, implying that these sites were the center of ritual, rites, and ceremonies.<ref name=":1" /> Most animals shown are mouflon and antelope, usually in static positions that do not appear to be part of a hunting scene.

The Bovidian/Pastoral period correlates with the arrival of domesticated cattle into the Sahara and the gradual shift to mobile pastoralism. There is a notable and visual difference between the Pastoral period and the earlier two periods, coinciding with the aridification of the Sahara. There is increased stylistic variation, implying the movement of different cultural groups within the area. Domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs are depicted, paralleling the zooarchaeological record of the area. The scenes reference diversified communities of herders, hunters with bows, as well as women and children, and imply a growing stratification of society based on property.

The following Horse traditions correspond with the complete desertification of the Sahara and the requirement for new travel methods. The arrival of horses, horse-drawn chariots, and riders are depicted, often in mid-gallop, and is associated more with hunting than warfare.<ref name=":1" /> Inscriptions of Libyan-Berber script, used by ancestral Berber peoples, appear next to the images, however, the text is completely indecipherable.

The last period is defined by the appearance of camels, which replaced donkeys and cattle as the main mode of transportation across the Sahara.<ref>"African Rock Art: Tassili-n-Ajjer (?8000 B.C.–?)". www.metmuseum.org. October 2000. Retrieved 2021-03-12.</ref> The arrival of camels coincides with the development of long-distance trade routes used by caravans to transport salt, goods, and enslaved people across the Sahara. Men, both mounted and unmounted, with shields, spears, and swords are present. Animals including cows and goats are included, but wild animals were crudely rendered.

Although these periods are successive the timeframes are flexible and are consistently being reconstructed by archaeologists as technology and interpretation develop. The art had been dated by archaeologists who gathered fallen fragments and debris from the rock face.<ref>Smith, Andrew B. (1992). "Origins and Spread of Pastoralism in Africa". Annual Review of Anthropology. 21: 130. ISSN 0084-6570.</ref>

A notable piece common in academic writing is the "Running Horned Woman," also known as the "Horned Goddess," from the round head period.<ref name=":3">Template:Cite journal</ref> The image depicts a female figure with horns in midstride; dots adorn her torso and limbs, and she is dressed in fringed armbands, a skirt, leg bands, and anklets. According to Arisika Razak, Tassili's Horned Goddess is an early example of the "African Sacred Feminine."<ref name=":3" /> Her femininity, fertility, and connection to nature are emphasized while the Neolithic artist superimposes the figure onto smaller, older figures. The use of bull horns is a common theme in later round head paintings, which reflects the steady integration of domesticated cattle into Saharan daily life. Cattle imagery, specifically that of bulls,<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> became a central theme in not only at Tassili, but at other nearby sites in Libya.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Fungoid rock artEdit

In 1989, the psychedelics researcher Giorgio Samorini proposed the theory that the fungoid-like paintings in the caves of Tassili are proof of the relationship between humans and psychedelics in the ancient populations of the Sahara, when it was still a verdant land:<ref name="artepreistorica 9000-%E2%80%93-7000-b-p">Giorgio Samorini, The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world Template:Webarchive, Artepreistorica.com, December 2009 (first published in 1992)</ref>

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This theory was reused by Terence McKenna in his 1992 book Food of the Gods, hypothesizing that the Neolithic culture that inhabited the site used psilocybin mushrooms as part of its religious ritual life, citing rock paintings showing persons holding mushroom-like objects in their hands, as well as mushrooms growing from their bodies.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> For Henri Lhote, who discovered the Tassili caves in the late 1950s, these were obviously secret sanctuaries.<ref name="artepreistorica 9000-%E2%80%93-7000-b-p"/>

The painting that best supports the mushroom hypothesis is the Tassili mushroom figure Matalem-Amazar where the body of the represented shaman is covered with mushrooms. According to Earl Lee in his book From the Bodies of the Gods: Psychoactive Plants and the Cults of the Dead (2012), this imagery refers to an ancient episode where a "mushroom shaman" was buried while fully clothed and when unearthed sometime later, tiny mushrooms would be growing on the clothes. Earl Lee considered the mushroom paintings at Tassili fairly realistic.<ref>Earl Lee, From the Bodies of the Gods: Psychoactive Plants and the Cults of the Dead Template:Webarchive, Simon and Schuster, 16 May 2012 (Template:ISBN)</ref>

According to Brian Akers, writer for the Mushroom journal, the fungoid rock art in Tassili does not resemble the representations of the Psilocybe hispanica in the Selva Pascuala caves (2015), and he doesn't consider it realistic.<ref name="mushroomthejournal spain">Brian Akers, A Cave In Spain Contains the Earliest Known Depictions of Mushrooms Template:Webarchive, Mushroomthejournal.com, 6 January 2015</ref>

In popular cultureEdit

Tassili is the recording location and the title of a 2011 album by the Tuareg band Tinariwen.
Tassili Plain is a track on the 1994 album Natural Wonders of the World in Dub by dub group Zion Train.
In Fate/Extella: The Umbral Star, the character Altera is actually a shattered form of the deity known as Sefar, which is based on one of the drawings made in the cave group and is known in the story also as The White Titan of Tassili n'Ajjer

GalleryEdit

Rock-Art, Saharan Cypress and Landscapes of the Tassili
Rock columns at Tassili n'Ajjer.jpg

Very high rock columns
photograph taken from 30 000 ft
Tassili mushroom man Matalem-Amazar.png

Anonymous reproduction of the Tassili Mushroom Figure Matalem-Amazar found in Tassili.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Femme-gravure.jpg

Depiction of a dancing or seated human
Dunes at Tassili n'Ajjer - detail.jpg

Dunes at Tassili n'Ajjer
Tassili Sahara 74.jpg

Surrounding desert
Cupressus dupreziana1.jpg

Local cypresses
Tassili Desert Algeria.jpg

Sandstone rocks and cliffs
Great god of Sefar.jpg

Ritual figure or shaman
Tassili - catapulte?.jpg

Human figures
African cave paintings.jpg

Human figures
Tassili - whites and blacks leaving in harmony?.jpg

Human figures
Algerien Desert.jpg

Human figures with bows

The rock engravings of Tin-TaghirtEdit

The Tin-Taghirt site is located in the Tassili n'Ajjer between the cities of Dider and Iherir.

TinTaghirtOstrich.jpg

An ostrich
Sleeping Antelope Tin Taghirt.jpg

Sleeping antelope - also found on the reverse of the 1000 Algerian dinar banknote
Bubalus Tin Taghirt.jpg

Bubalus antiquus
TinTaghirtFootprints.jpg

Footprints
TinTaghirtHumanBeings.jpg

Human beings