Taupō Volcanic Zone
Template:Short description Template:Use New Zealand English Template:Infobox landform
The Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a volcanic area in the North Island of New Zealand. It has been active for at least the past two million years and is still highly active.
Mount Ruapehu marks its south-western end and the zone runs north-eastward through the Taupō and Rotorua areas and offshore into the Bay of Plenty. It is part of a larger Central Volcanic Region that extends to the Coromandel Peninsula and has been active for four million years. The zone is contained within the tectonic intra-arc continental Taupō Rift and this rift volcanic zone is widening unevenly east–west, with the greatest rate of widening at the Bay of Plenty coast, the least at Mount Ruapehu and a rate of about Template:Cvt per year at Taupō. The zone is named after Lake Taupō, the flooded caldera of the largest volcano in the zone, the Taupō Volcano and contains a large central volcanic plateau as well as other landforms.
ActivityEdit
There are numerous volcanic vents and geothermal fields in the zone, with Mount Ruapehu, Mount Ngauruhoe and Whakaari / White Island erupting most frequently. Whakaari has been in continuous activity since 1826 counting steaming fumaroles, but the same applies to say the Okataina volcanic centre.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Taupō Volcanic Zone has produced in the last 350,000 years over Template:Convert material, more than anywhere else on Earth, from over 300 silicic eruptions, with 12 of these eruptions being caldera-forming.<ref name="Kósik2021">Template:Cite journal</ref> Detailed stratigraphy in the zone is only available from the Ōkataina Rotoiti eruption but including this event, the zone has been more productive than any other rhyolite predominant volcanic area over the last 50,000 odd years at Template:Cvt per thousand years.<ref name="Wilson2009">Template:Cite book</ref>Template:Rp Comparison of large events in the Taupō volcanic zone over the last 1.6 million years at Template:Cvt per thousand years with Yellowstone Caldera's 2.1 million year productivity at Template:Cvt per thousand years favours Taupo.<ref name="Wilson2009" />Template:Rp Both the Taupō Volcano and the Ōkataina Caldera have had multiple eruptions in the last 25,000 years. The zone's largest eruption since the arrival of Europeans was that of Mount Tarawera (within the Ōkataina Caldera) in 1886, which killed over 100 people. Early Māori would also have been affected by the much larger Kaharoa eruption from Tarawera around 1315 CE.<ref name="Bonadonna 2015">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
The last major eruption from Lake Taupō, the Hatepe eruption, occurred in 232 CE.<ref name="Illsley-Kemp 2021">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is believed to have first emptied the lake, then followed that feat with a pyroclastic flow that covered about Template:Convert of land with volcanic ash. A total of Template:Convert of material expressed as dense-rock equivalent (DRE) is believed to have been ejected, and over Template:Convert of material is estimated to have been ejected in just a few minutes. The date of this activity was previously thought to be 186 AD as the ash expulsion was thought to be sufficiently large to turn the sky red over Rome and China (as documented in Hou Han Shu), but this has since been disproven.<ref name="Illsley-Kemp 2021" />
Whakaari / White Island had a major, edifice failure collapse of its volcano dated to 946 BCE ± 52 years. It has been suggested that this was the cause of the tsunami tens of metres tall that went up to Template:Convert inland in the Bay of Plenty at about this time. Although significant tsunamis can be associated with volcanic eruptions, it is unknown if the cause was a relatively small eruption of Whakaari or another cause such as a large local earthquake<ref name="de Lange 2016">Template:Cite book</ref>
Taupō erupted an estimated Template:Convert of DRE material in its Oruanui eruption 25,580 years ago.<ref name="Dunbar 2017">Template:Cite journal</ref> This was Earth's most recent eruption reaching VEI-8, the highest level on the Volcanic Explosivity Index.
The Rotorua caldera has been dormant longer, with its main eruption occurring about 225,000 years ago, although lava dome extrusion has occurred within the last 25,000 years.<ref name="Milner2001">Template:Cite thesis</ref><ref name="gvp">Template:Cite gvp</ref>
Extent and geological contextEdit
The Taupō volcanic zone is approximately Template:Convert long by Template:Convert wide. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while Whakaari / White Island is considered its northeastern limit.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
It forms a southern portion of the active Lau-Havre-Taupō back-arc basin, which lies behind the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Mayor Island and Mount Taranaki are recently active back arc volcanoes on the New Zealand extension of this arc. Mayor Island / Tūhua is the northern-most shield volcano adjacent to the New Zealand coast, and is believed to have been active in the last 1000 years.<ref name="Houghton1995">Template:Cite journal</ref> It is formed from rhyolite magma.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It has a quite complex eruptive history but only with one definite significant Plinian eruption.<ref name="Houghton1995"/> Mount Taranaki is an andesite cone and the most recent of four Taranaki volcanoes about Template:Convert west of the Taupō Volcanic Zone.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Associated with the Taupō volcanic zone, intra-arc extension is expressed as normal faulting within a zone known as the Taupō Rift.<ref name="Holden2015">Template:Cite journal</ref> Volcanic activity continues to the north-northeast, along the line of the Taupō Volcanic Zone, through several undersea volcanoes in the South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts, then shifts eastward to the parallel volcanic arc of the Kermadec Islands and Tonga. Although the back-arc basin continues to propagate to the south-west, with the South Wanganui Basin forming an initial back-arc basin, volcanic activity has not yet begun in this region.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>
South of Kaikōura the plate boundary changes to a transform boundary with oblique continental collision uplifting the Southern Alps in the South Island. A subduction zone reappears south-west of Fiordland, at the south-western corner of the South Island, although here the subduction is in the opposite direction. Solander Island / Hautere is an extinct volcano associated with this subduction zone, and the only one that protrudes above the sea.
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shift:(100,-12) fontsize:XS text: 1924 Okataina bar:test at:01/09/1924 mark:(line,orange) at:01/03/1924 shift:(10,-7) fontsize:XS text: 1924 Whakaari bar:test at:01/03/1924 mark:(line,pink) at:09/01/1924 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 9 Jan 1924 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:09/01/1924 mark:(line,coral) at:22/05/1924 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 May 1924 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:22/05/1924 mark:(line,coral) at:01/10/1924 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1924 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/10/1924 mark:(line,coral) at:22/01/1925 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jan 1925 Ruapehu bar:test at:22/01/1925 mark:(line,red) at:01/11/1925 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1925 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/11/1925 mark:(line,coral) at:03/02/1926 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 3 Feb 1926 Whakaari bar:test at:03/02/1926 mark:(line,pink) at:16/04/1926 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 16 Apr 1926 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:16/04/1926 mark:(line,coral) at:17/11/1926 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 17 Nov 1926 Okataina bar:test at:17/11/1926 mark:(line,orange) at:21/12/1926 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 21 Dec 1926 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:21/12/1926 mark:(line,coral) at:01/06/1927 shift:(190,-1) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1927 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/06/1927 mark:(line,coral) at:03/03/1928 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 3 Mar 1928 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:03/03/1928 mark:(line,coral) at:01/07/1928 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: Jul 1928 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/07/1928 mark:(line,coral) at:01/09/1928 shift:(190,0) fontsize:XS text: 1 Sep 1928 Whakaari bar:test at:01/09/1928 mark:(line,pink) at:16/03/1930 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 16 Mar 1930 Whakaari bar:test at:16/03/1930 mark:(line,pink) at:01/02/1931 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1931 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/02/1931 mark:(line,coral) at:02/04/1933 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 2 Apr 1933 Whakaari bar:test at:02/04/1933 mark:(line,pink) at:01/06/1934 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: Jun 1934 Ngauruhoe bar:test 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Ngauruhoe bar:test at:16/06/1950 mark:(line,coral) at:26/06/1950 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 26 Jun 1950 Ruapehu bar:test at:26/06/1950 mark:(line,red) at:19/03/1951 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 19 Mar 1951 Ruapehu bar:test at:19/03/1951 mark:(line,red) at:16/05/1951 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1951 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:16/05/1951 mark:(line,coral) at:16/06/1951 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jun 1951 Okataina bar:test at:16/06/1951 mark:(line,orange) at:16/07/1952 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jul 1952 Ruapehu bar:test at:16/07/1952 mark:(line,red) at:29/11/1952 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 29 Nov 1952 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:29/11/1952 mark:(line,coral) at:28/12/1953 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 28 Dec 1953 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:28/12/1953 mark:(line,coral) at:13/05/1954 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13 May 1954 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:13/05/1954 mark:(line,coral) at:16/01/1955 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jan 1955 Whakaari bar:test at:16/01/1955 mark:(line,pink) at:11/01/1956 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 11 Jan 1956 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:11/01/1956 mark:(line,coral) at:18/11/1956 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 18 Nov 1956 Ruapehu bar:test at:18/11/1956 mark:(line,red) at:11/12/1957 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 11 Dec 1957 Whakaari bar:test at:11/12/1957 mark:(line,pink) at:05/11/1958 shift:(100,-6) fontsize:XS text: 5 Nov 1958 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:05/11/1958 mark:(line,coral) at:16/12/1958 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 Dec 1958 Whakaari bar:test at:16/12/1958 mark:(line,pink) at:21/05/1959 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 21 May 1959 Ruapehu bar:test at:21/05/1959 mark:(line,red) at:01/06/1959 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 1 Jun 1959 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:01/06/1959 mark:(line,coral) at:14/12/1959 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 14 Dec 1959 Whakaari bar:test at:14/12/1959 mark:(line,pink) at:24/05/1962 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 24 May 1962 Ngauruhoe bar:test at:24/05/1962 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Scientific studyEdit
TectonicsEdit
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In the North Island rifting associated with plate tectonics has defined a Central Volcanic Region, that has been active for four million years and this extends westward from the Taupō volcanic zone through the western Bay of Plenty to the eastern side of the Coromandel Peninsula.<ref name=Cole1995>Template:Cite book</ref> The dominant rifting axis associated with the Central Volcanic Region has moved with time, from the back-arc associated Hauraki Rift to the intra-arc Taupō Rift. As there is presently no absolute consensus with regard to the cause of the Taupō Rift's extension or its exceptional current volcanic productivity, some of the discussion on this page has been simplified, rather than all possible models being presented.
Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the Taupō Volcanic Zone may be as little as 16 kilometres thick. A film of magma 50 kilometres (30 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (100 mi) long lies 10 kilometres under the surface.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite journal 01311.</ref> The geological record indicates that some of the volcanoes in the area erupt infrequently but have large, violent and destructive eruptions when they do. Technically the zone is in the continental intraarc Taupō Rift, which is a continuation of oceanic plate structures associated with oblique Australian and Pacific Plate convergence in the Hikurangi subduction zone. At Taupō the rift volcanic zone is widening east–west at the rate of about Template:Cvt/year, while at Mount Ruapehu it is only Template:Cvt/year and this increases at the north eastern end at the Bay of Plenty coast to Template:Cvt/year.<ref name="Rifting">Template:Cite journal</ref> The rift has had three active stages of faulting in the last 2 million years with the modern Taupō rift evolving in the last 25,000 years after the massive Oruanui eruption and now being within two essentially inactive rift systems. These are the surrounding limits of the young Taupō Rift between 25,000 and 350,000 years and old Taupō Rift system whose northern boundary is now located well to the north of the other two being created before 350,000 years ago.<ref name="Rifting" />
The Tauranga Volcanic Centre which was active between 2.95 to 1.9 million years ago, and was previously classified as part of the Central Volcanic Region,<ref name=Cole1995/> appears now to be in a tectonic continuum with the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Recent ocean floor tephra studies off the east coast of the North Island have shown an abrupt compositional change in these, from about 4.5 million years ago, that has been suggested to distinguish Coromandel Volcanic Zone activity from that of the Taupō Volcanic Zone.<ref name=Pank2023>Template:Cite journal</ref> Further the distinctive Waiteariki ignimbrite that erupted 2.1 million years ago in a supereruption, presumably from the gravity anomaly defined Omanawa Caldera,<ref name=Stagpoole2021>Template:Cite journal</ref> is within the postulated borders of the old Taupō Rift.<ref name=Prentice2022>Template:Cite journal</ref>
FaultsEdit
The multiple intra-rift faults are some of the most active in the country and some have the potential to create over magnitude 7 events. The fault structures are perhaps most well characterised related to the Ruapehu and Tongariro grabens. The recent deposits from major eruptions and lake features mean many potentially significant faults are uncharacterised, either completely (for example the 6.5 MW 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake resulted in the mapping of the Edgecumbe fault for the first time) or frequency of events and their likely magnitude are not understood. It can not be assumed that just because the rate of expansion of the rift is greatest near the coast that this is where most significant tectonic earthquakes in terms of human risk will be. The Waihi Fault Zone south of Lake Taupō and associated with the Tongariro graben has a particular risk of inducing massive landslips which has caused significant loss of life and appears to be more active than many other faults in the zone.
VolcanismEdit
The north (Whakatane Graben – Bay of Plenty) part of the zone is predominantly formed from andesitic magma<ref name="Cole2009">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> and represented by the continuously active Whakaari / White Island andesite–dacite stratovolcano. Although Strombolian activity has occurred the explosive eruptions are typically phreatic or phreatomagmatic.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The active emergent summit tops the larger, Template:Convert × Template:Convert, submarine volcano with a total volume of Template:Convert.<ref name="ColeOthers2000a">Cole, J.W., Thordarson, T. and Burt, R.M., 2000. Magma origin and evolution of White Island (Whakaari) volcano, Bay of plenty, New Zealand. Journal of Petrology, 41(6), pp.867–895.</ref><ref name="MoonOthers2009a">Moon, V., Bradshaw, J. and de Lange, W., 2009. Geomorphic development of White Island Volcano based on slope stability modelling. Engineering Geology, 104(1–2), pp.16–30.</ref><ref name="Jimenez2015">Jimenez, C., 2015. Magmatic-hydrothermal system at White Island volcano, North Island, New Zealand. in M. Calder, ed., pp. 35–46, JCU SEG Student Chapter New Zealand, North Island Field Trip 2015 Guide Book. Queensland, Australia: James Cook University SEG Student Chapter, Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.</ref><ref name="Duncan1970a">Template:Cite thesis</ref>
The central part of the zone is composed of eight caldera centres the oldest of which is the Mangakino caldera which was active more than a million years ago (1.62–0.91 Ma).<ref name="Cole2009"/> This produced ignimbrite that Template:Convert away in Auckland is up to Template:Convert thick.<ref name="NZSSS2006">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Other than the now buried Kapenga caldera there are five caldera centres, Rotorua, Ohakuri, Reporoa, Ōkataina and Taupō. These have resulted from massive infrequent eruptions of gaseous very viscous rhyolite magma which is rich in silicon, potassium, and sodium and created the ignimbrite sheets of the North Island Volcanic Plateau. The detailed composition suggests subduction erosion might play a predominant role in producing this rhyolite,<ref>Template:Cite thesis</ref>Template:Rp as later assimilation and fractional crystallization of primary basalt magma, is difficult to model to explain the composition and volumes erupted.<ref name=SantaCruz2023>Template:Cite journal</ref> This central zone has had the largest number of very large silicic caldera-forming eruptions recently on earth as mentioned earlier.<ref name="Gualda2018">Template:Cite journal</ref><ref name="Wilson2009" />
During a period of less than 100,000 years commencing with the massive Whakamaru eruption about 335,000 years ago of greater than Template:Convert dense-rock equivalent of material, just to the north of the present Lake Taupō, over Template:Convert total was erupted. These eruptions essentially defined the limits of the present central volcanic plateau, although its current central landscape is mainly a product of later smaller events over the last 200,000 years than the Whakamaru eruption. The other volcanic plateau defining eruptions were to the west, the Template:Convert Matahina eruption of about 280,000 years ago, the mainly tephra Template:Convert Chimp (Chimpanzee) eruption between 320 and 275 ka, the central Template:Convert Pokai eruption of about 275 ka, and the paired Mamaku to the north and east central Ohakuri eruptions of about 240,000 years ago that together produced more than Template:Convert dense-rock equivalent of material.<ref name="Gualda2018"/> The southern Taupō Volcano Oruanui eruption about 25,600 years ago produced Template:Convert dense-rock equivalent of material and its recent Hatepe eruption of 232 CE ± 10 years had Template:Convert dense-rock equivalent.<ref name="Illsley-Kemp 2021"/> Since the Whakamaru eruption the central part of the zone has dominated, so that when the whole zone is considered there has been about Template:Cvt of rhyolite, Template:Cvt of andesite, Template:Cvt of dacite and Template:Cvt of basalt erupted.<ref name="Wilson2009" />Template:Rp
Less gaseous rhyolite magma dome building effusive eruptions have built features such as the Horomatangi Reefs or Motutaiko Island in Lake Taupō or the lava dome of Mount Tarawera. This later as part of the Ōkataina caldera complex is the highest risk volcanic field in New Zealand to man.<ref name="Doherty2009">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Mount Tauhara adjacent to Lake Taupō is actually a dacitic dome <ref>Volcanic Hazards Working Group of the Civil Defence Scientific Advisory Committee, which includes scientists from the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences and the Universities, Number seven "Taupo Volcanic Centre" Template:Webarchive</ref> and so intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite but still more viscous than basalt which is rarely found in the zone.<ref name="Bertrand2022">Template:Cite journal</ref>
The southern part of the zone contain classic volcanic cone structure formed from andesite magma in effusive eruptions that cool to form dark grey lava if gas-poor or scoria if gas-rich of this part of the zone. Mount Ruapehu, the tallest mountain in the North Island, is a Template:Convert andesite cone surrounded by a Template:Convert ring-plain.<ref name="RuapehuTongariro2021Review">Template:Cite journal</ref> This ring plain is formed from numerous volcanic deposits created by slope failure, eruptions, or lahars. Northwest of Ruapehu is Hauhungatahi, the oldest recorded volcano in the south of the plateau,<ref name="RuapehuTongariro2021Review"/> with to the north the two prominent volcanic mountains in the Tongariro volcanic centre being Tongariro and Ngauruhoe which are part of a single composite stratovolcano.
RisksEdit
The most likely risk is earthquake associated with multiple active faults,<ref name="RotoruaRisk">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> such as within the Taupō Fault Belt, but many faults will be uncharacterised as was the case with the 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake.<ref name=Franks1989>Template:Cite journal</ref> Earthquakes can be associated with landslides and inland or coastal tsunami that can result in great loss of life and both have happened on the Waihi Fault Zone.<ref name="Tongariro faults">Template:Cite journal</ref> The relative low grade volcanic activity of the andesite volcanoes at each end of the zone has resulted in recorded history in both direct loss of life and disrupted transport and tourism. The only high grade eruption in recorded history was atypically basaltic from Mount Tarawera and although very destructive is not likely to be a perfect model for the more typical and often larger rhyolitic events associated with the Taupō Volcano and the Ōkataina Caldera.<ref name="Darragh2004">Template:Cite thesis</ref> As mentioned earlier the Ōkataina caldera complex is the highest risk volcanic field risk in New Zealand to man<ref name="Doherty2009"/> and the recent frequency of rhyolitic events there is not reassuring, along with the timescale of likely warning of such an event.<ref name="Darragh2004"/> These eruptions are associated with tephra production that results in deep ash fall over wide areas (e.g. the Whakatane eruption of ~ 5500 years ago had Template:Convert ashfall Template:Convert away on the Chatham Islands) `<ref name="Holt2011">Template:Cite journal</ref> pyroclastic flows and surges, which rarely have covered large areas of the North Island in ignimbrite sheets, earthquakes, lake tsunamis, prolonged lava dome growth and associated block and ash flows with post-eruption lahars and flooding.<ref name="Darragh2004"/>
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at:-29999 shift:(0,-5) text: Selected eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone at:2500 shift:(0,-4) text: Selected eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone at:-29750 shift:(40,-5) fontsize:XS text: Note – The further back in time, the larger an eruption at:-29600 shift:(40,-5) fontsize:XS text: must be, to be detected. Accordingly interpret with caution at:-29450 shift:(40,-3) fontsize:XS text: as eruptive indices are based for many eruptions on tepra at:-29300 shift:(40,-3) fontsize:XS text: deposits alone and DRE volume is not the same. at:-29050 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: (DRE volume) at:-28900 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index at:-28750 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 at:2450 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index at:2300 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 at:2150 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: (DRE volume) at:-26435 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 26400 BCE Taupō Poihipi bar:test at:-26435 mark:(line,red) at:-26435 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(1.5 km ) at:-26435 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-25675 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25675 BCE Taupō Oruanui eruption at:-25675 shift:(215,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(530 km ) at:-25675 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 bar:test at:-25675 mark:(line,red) at:-23221 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 23221 BCE Te Rere eruption at:-23221 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(11.5 km) at:-23221 shift:(255,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 bar:test at:-23221 mark:(line,red) at:-21575 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 21575 BCE Ōkataina Okareka bar:test at:-21575 mark:(line,red) at:-21575 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(5 km ) at:-21575 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-15546 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 15546 BCE Ōkataina Rerewhakaaitu bar:test at:-15546 mark:(line,red) at:-15546 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(8 km ) at:-15546 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-13685 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13685 BCE Ōkataina Rotorua bar:test at:-13685 mark:(line,red) at:-13685 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(4 km ) at:-13685 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-12059 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 12059 BCE Ōkataina Waiohau bar:test at:-12059 mark:(line,red) at:-12059 shift:(220,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(11 km ) at:-12059 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-9460 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 9460 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit B bar:test at:-9460 mark:(line,red) at:-9460 shift:(217,-16) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.5 km ) at:-9460 shift:(253,-14) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-9240 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 9240 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit C bar:test at:-9240 mark:(line,red) at:-9240 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.3 km ) at:-9240 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-9210 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 9210 BCE Acacia Bay Unit D bar:test at:-9210 mark:(line,red) at:-8130 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 8130 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit E bar:test at:-8130 mark:(line,red) at:-8130 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(2 km ) at:-8130 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-7473 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 7473 BCE Ōkataina Rotoma bar:test at:-7473 mark:(line,red) at:-7473 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(8 km ) at:-7473 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-5990 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 5990 BCE Ōkataina Mamaku bar:test at:-5990 mark:(line,red) at:-5990 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(17.5 km ) at:-5990 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-5100 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 5100 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit F bar:test at:-5100 mark:(line,red) at:-5100 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.07 km ) at:-5100 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-4700 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 4700 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit G bar:test at:-4700 mark:(line,red) at:-4700 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.2 km ) at:-4700 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-4100 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 4100 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit H bar:test at:-4100 mark:(line,red) at:-4100 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.08 km ) at:-4100 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-4000 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 4000 BCE Taupō Unit I bar:test at:-4000 mark:(line,red) at:-3576 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 3576 BCE Ōkataina Whakatane bar:test at:-3576 mark:(line,red) at:-3576 shift:(220,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(17 km ) at:-3576 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-3420 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 3420 BCE Taupō Unit J bar:test at:-3420 mark:(line,red) at:-3170 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text: 3170 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit K bar:test at:-3170 mark:(line,red) at:-3120 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 3120 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit L bar:test at:-3120 mark:(line,red) at:-3070 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 3070 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit M bar:test at:-3070 mark:(line,red) at:-2900 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 2900 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit N bar:test at:-2900 mark:(line,red) at:-2850 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 2850 BCE Taupō Te Tuhi Pt Unit O bar:test at:-2850 mark:(line,red) at:-2800 shift:(10,5) fontsize:XS text: 2800 BCE Taupō Unit P bar:test at:-2800 mark:(line,red) at:-2600 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 2600 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit Q bar:test at:-2600 mark:(line,red) at:-2500 shift:(10,3) fontsize:XS text: 2500 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit R bar:test at:-2500 mark:(line,red) at:-1460 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 1460 BCE Taupō Horomatangi Unit S bar:test at:-1460 mark:(line,red) at:-1460 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(7.5 km ) at:-1460 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:-1250 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 1250 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit T bar:test at:-1250 mark:(line,red) at:-1050 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 1050 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit U bar:test at:-1050 mark:(line,red) at:-1010 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 1010 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit V bar:test at:-1010 mark:(line,red) at:-800 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text: 800 BCE Taupō Ouaha Hills Unit W bar:test at:-800 mark:(line,red) at:-200 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 200 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit X bar:test at:-200 mark:(line,red) at:-200 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.28 km ) at:-200 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:233 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 233 Taupō Hatepe eruption Unit Y bar:test at:233 mark:(line,red) at:233 shift:(214,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(120 km ) at:233 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:260 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 260 Taupō Eastern lake bar:test at:260 mark:(line,red) at:1200 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: Māori in NZ bar:test at:1200 mark:(line,black) at:1314 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text:1314 Ōkataina Kaharoa at:1314 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(5 km ) at:1314 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 bar:test at:1314 mark:(line,red) at:1840 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text: European colonisation bar:test at:1840 mark:(line,black) at:1886 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text:1886 Okataina Tarawera bar:test at:1886 mark:(line,red) at:1886 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(1 km ) at:1886 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 at:1945 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text:1945 Ruapehu bar:test at:1945 mark:(line,red)
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Volcanoes, lakes and geothermal fieldsEdit
Template:GeoGroup <mapframe frameless="1" align="right" text="Map of selected volcanic features as rectangular symbols for the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Volcanoes classified as active are shown as red, other notable volcanoes (there are many more) are shown as orange, geothermal areas as light blue and if active hydrothermal eruptions as blue. It is possible by clicking on the map to get a full screen view that enables mouseover to show a label (often wiki-linked) for each symbol." width="300" height="360" latitude="-38.2" longitude="176.3" zoom="7">{{Wikipedia:Map data/Taupō Volcanic Zone}} </mapframe> <mapframe frameless="1" align="right" text="Map of selected surface volcanic deposits centred on the Taupō Volcanic Zone, allowing wider volcanic context. Clicking on the map enlarges it, and enables panning and mouseover of volcanic deposits name/wikilink and ages before present. The key to the shading of the volcanics that are shown is rhyolite – violet, ignimbrite – lighter shades of violet, dacite – purple, basalt – brown, monogenetic basalts – dark brown, undifferentiated basalts of the Tangihua Complex in Northland Allochthon – light brown, arc basalts – deep orange brown, arc ring basalts -orange brown, andesite – red, basaltic andesite`- light red, and plutonic – gray. White shading has been used for postulated calderas (usually subsurface now)." width="300" height="360" latitude="-38.2" longitude="176.3" zoom="7" icon="no">{{Wikipedia:Map data/Northern North Island Volcanics}} </mapframe> The following Volcanic Centres belong to the modern Taupō Volcanic Zone in what proved to be an evolving classification scheme:
Rotorua, Ōkataina, Maroa, Taupō, Tongariro and Mangakino.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The old zone almost certainly contains volcanoes in the Tauranga Volcanic Centre.<ref name="Pittari2021">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Tauranga Volcanic Centre – Bay of Plenty
- Activity commenced here over two million years ago and is now extinct.
- Whakatāne Graben – Bay of Plenty
- Rotorua Volcanic Centre
- Rotorua Caldera, size: 22 km wide Template:Coord<ref name="largeeruptions">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
- Mount Ngongotahā Template:Coord
- Lakes
- Geothermal fields
- Tikitere/Hell's Gate Template:Coord
- Whakarewarewa Template:Coord
- Pōhutu Geyser (Te Puia)
- Ōkataina Volcanic Centre: The Haroharo and Tarawera complexes impounded the lakes against the outer margins of the Ōkataina Caldera. The Ōkāreka Embayment and the Tarawera Volcanic Complex were placed inside the Haroharo Caldera which in turn is inside the Okataina Ring Structure, according to Newhall (1988),<ref>Template:Cite journal Citing Template:Cite journal</ref> but this was reclassified by Cole (2009).<ref name="Cole2009"/>
- Ōkataina Caldera, size: roughly 27 x 20 km Template:Coord<ref>Okataina Volcanic Center, New Zealand</ref>
- Haroharo volcanic complex, northern end of the Okataina Volcanic Centre<ref name="largeeruptions" /> with infilling of several sub-caldera's from caldera forming eruptions:
- Rotoiti Caldera
- Matahina Caldera
- Utu Caldera
- Mount Tarawera and Tarawera volcanic complex Template:Coord
- Okareka vent<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
- Puhipuhi Embayment
- Ōkareka Embayment Template:Coord
- Rotomā Caldera<ref name="Plenty">Template:Cite journal</ref> Template:Coord
- Haroharo volcanic complex, northern end of the Okataina Volcanic Centre<ref name="largeeruptions" /> with infilling of several sub-caldera's from caldera forming eruptions:
- Lakes
- Geothermal fields
- Ōkataina Caldera, size: roughly 27 x 20 km Template:Coord<ref>Okataina Volcanic Center, New Zealand</ref>
- Maroa Volcanic Centre: The Maroa Caldera formed in the north-east corner of the Whakamaru Caldera, and the Whakamaru Caldera partially overlaps with the Taupō Caldera on the South. The Waikato River course follows roughly the northern Maroa Caldera rim on one side. The town of Whakamaru and the artificial Lake Whakamaru, on the Waikato River, have the same name too.<ref name="largeeruptions" /> The paired single event eruption of the Ohakuri Caldera at its north western limits with the Rotorua Caldera added later complexity after this classification was developed. Accordingly, later naming, terms this the Whakamaru caldera complex.
- Ohakuri Caldera Template:Coord
- Maroa Caldera, size: 16 x 25 km Template:Coord<ref name="largeeruptions" />
- Puketarata volcanic complex Template:Coord<ref name="Kósik2019">Template:Cite journal</ref>
- Reporoa Caldera, size: 10 x 15 km Template:Coord<ref name="largeeruptions" />
- Whakamaru Caldera, size: 30 x 40 km<ref name="largeeruptions" /> Template:Coord
- Geothermal fields
- Taupō Volcanic Center
- Taupō Caldera, size: roughly 35 km wide Template:Coord<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
- Ben Lomond rhyolite dome (contains obsidian) Template:Coord
- Lake Taupō Template:Coord
- Geothermal fields
- Tauhara-Taupō Template:Coord
- Tongariro Volcanic Centre: Lake Taupō, Kakaramea, Pihanga, Tongariro and Ruapehu are roughly aligned on the main fault.
- Kakaramea-Tihia Massif Template:Coord
- Pihanga Template:Coord
- Mount Tongariro and Tongariro volcanic complex Template:Coord
- Mount Ngauruhoe, a main Tongariro vent Template:Coord
- Tama crater lakes, main Tongariro vents
- Upper Tama Template:Coord
- Lower Tama Template:Coord
- Mount Ruapehu Template:Coord
- Lakes
- Geothermal fields
- Ketetahi Springs Template:Coord
- Mangakino Volcanic Centre: The Mangakino Volcanic Centre is the westernmost extinct rhyolitic caldera volcano in the Taupō Volcanic Zone and activity commenced at least 1.62 million years ago.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> The course of the Waikato River crosses this area, between the artificial Lake Ohakuri (Template:Coord), the town of Mangakino (Template:Coord) and Hamilton.
- Artificial Lake Maraetai
Other important features of the TVZ include the Ngakuru and Ruapehu grabens.
NoteEdit
There is more recent, somewhat different classification, by some of the same authors, that uses the term caldera complex:<ref name="Cole2009"/>
- North part: Whakatane Graben – Bay of Plenty
- Central part:
- West of the main fault zone:
- Mangakino caldera complex; may be transitional between Coromandel Volcanic Zone (CVZ) and Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) (1.62 – 0.91 mio. years old)
- Kapenga caldera; lies between the Maroa caldera and the Rotorua caldera, it is completely buried under more recent tephra (circa 700,000 years old)
- Ōkāreka Embayment, lies inside the northern end of the Kapenga caldera, but is now usually regarded as part of the recently active Okataina caldera complex<ref name="Plenty" />
- Rotorua single event caldera; Mamaku Ignimbrite (circa 225,000 years old)
- Main fault zone:
- East of the main fault zone:
- Reporoa single event caldera; Kaingaroa Ignimbrite (circa 240,000 years old)
- West of the main fault zone:
- South part: Tongariro Volcanic Centre
See alsoEdit
ReferencesEdit
External linksEdit
- Further information on Taupō volcanics
- Tectonic plate information
- Earthquake risks
- New Zealand's volcanoes: The Taupō Volcanic Centre
- New Zealand's volcanoes: The Okataina Volcanic Centre
- Maps
- Environment Waikato, Regional Council, map
- Template:Cite book
- Template:Cite book Map modified from: Template:Cite journal
- Geological Society of New Zealand & New Zealand Geophysical Society - Fieldtrip 2
- Template:Cite book
- New Zealand, Taupō and Coromandel volcanic zones
- Template:Cite journal
- The Taupō Volcanic Zone with Māori Freehold Land (1995) – showing geothermal fields