Template:Short description Template:For Template:Primary sources Template:Use mdy dates Template:Infobox philosopher Theophrastus (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy in Athens. Theophrastus wrote numerous treatises across all areas of philosophy, working to support, improve, expand, and develop the Aristotelian system. He made significant contributions to various fields, including ethics, metaphysics, botany, and natural history. Often considered the "father of botany" for his groundbreaking works "Enquiry into Plants" (Template:Langx) and "On the Causes of Plants", (Template:Langx) Theophrastus established the foundations of botanical science. His given name was Template:Grc-transl (Ancient Greek: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}); the nickname Theophrastus ("divine speaker") was reputedly given to him by Aristotle in recognition of his eloquent style.
He came to Athens at a young age and initially studied in Plato's school. After Plato's death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus in his writings. When Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as head of the Lyceum.<ref name="Ancient Botany p8">Template:Cite book</ref> Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father of botany for his works on plants.<ref>Matthew Hall, Plants as Persons: A Philosophical Botany, p. 28.</ref> After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus.
The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, including biology, physics, ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants, were an important influence on Renaissance science. There are also surviving works On Moral Characters, On Sense Perception, and On Stones, as well as fragments on Physics and Metaphysics. In philosophy, he studied grammar and language and continued Aristotle's work on logic. He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion, and motion as a necessary consequence of all activity.Template:Citation needed In ethics, he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue.
LifeEdit
Most of the biographical information about Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus's time.<ref name= Hort1916>Template:Harvnb</ref> He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.<ref>Strabo, xiii.; Template:Harvnb.</ref> His given name was Tyrtamus ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), but he later became known by the nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (from Ancient Greek {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'god' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to phrase', i.e. divine expression).<ref>Strabo, xiii.; Template:Harvnb</ref>
After receiving instruction in philosophy on Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens, where he may have studied under Plato.Template:Efn He became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is very likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus.Template:Sfn It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into natural science, with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants.Template:Sfn Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2.Template:Sfn Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens, where Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. When, after the death of Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens, Theophrastus remained behind as head (scholarch) of the Peripatetic school,Template:Sfn a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in 322/1.
Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus, with whom he was close.Template:Efn Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works,Template:Efn and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum.<ref>Template:Harvnb; comp. Aulus Gellius, xiii. 5.</ref> Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice.Template:Sfn
Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for 35 years,Template:Sfn and died at age 85, according to Diogenes.Template:SfnTemplate:Efn He is said to have remarked, "We die just when we are beginning to live".<ref>Cicero. Tusculanae Quaestiones, iii. 28; Jerome, Letter to Nepotian; Template:Harvnb.</ref>
Under his guidance, the school flourished greatly—there were at one period more than 2,000 students, Diogenes affirmsTemplate:Sfn—and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his pupils.Template:Sfn His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander, and Ptolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him.<ref>Template:Harvnb; comp. Aelian, Varia Historia, iv. 19.</ref>Template:Sfn He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave."Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was succeeded as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus.
WritingsEdit
From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings are lost works.Template:Sfn Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second Analytic ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn He had also written books on Topics ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}});Template:Sfn on the Analysis of Syllogisms ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), on Sophisms ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and on Affirmation and Denial ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}})Template:Sfn as well as on the Natural Philosophy ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and others), on Heaven ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), and on Meteorological Phenomena ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn
In addition, Theophrastus wrote on the Warm and the Cold ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn on Water ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), Fire ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn the Sea ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn on Coagulation and Melting ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life,Template:Sfn and on the Soul ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), on Experience ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and On Sense Perception (also known as On the Senses; {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn Likewise, we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Archelaus,Template:Sfn Diogenes of Apollonia, Democritus,Template:Sfn which were made use of by Simplicius; and also on Xenocrates,Template:Sfn against the Academics,Template:Sfn and a sketch of the political doctrine of Plato.Template:Sfn
He studied general history, as we know from Plutarch's lives of Lycurgus, Solon, Aristides, Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander, Agesilaus, and Demosthenes, which were probably borrowed from the work on Lives ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).Template:Sfn But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in natural history. This is testified to not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects of zoology, of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his books On Stones, his Enquiry into Plants, and On the Causes of Plants (see below), which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on the State ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), we find quoted various treatises on Education ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn on Royalty ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn on the Best State ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), on Political Morals ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), and particularly his works on the Laws ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of various barbarian as well as Greek states, was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of Politics, and must have been similar to it.<ref>Cicero, de Finibus, v. 4.</ref> He also wrote on oratory and poetry.<ref>Cicero, de Invent. i. 35.</ref> Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his ethical writings,Template:Sfn as also in his metaphysical investigations of motion, the soul, and God.Template:Sfn
Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into the Problems that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle,<ref>Template:Harvnb; comp. Pliny, H.N. xxviii. 6; Aristotle, Probl. xxxiii. 12.</ref> and commentaries,<ref>Template:Harvnb; comp. § 43.</ref> partly dialogue,<ref>Basil. Magn. Epist. 167.</ref> to which probably belonged the Erotikos ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),<ref>Template:Harvnb; Athenaeus, xii. 2, xiii. 2.</ref> Megacles ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn Callisthenes ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),<ref>Template:Harvnb; Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iii. 10; Alexander of Aphrodisius, de Anima, ii.</ref> and Megarikos ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),Template:Sfn and letters,Template:Sfn partly books on mathematical sciences and their history.Template:Sfn
Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of the botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks.<ref name=Hort1916 /> "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity".<ref name=Hort1916 /> The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to the well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants.<ref name="SmithDGRBM">Template:Harvnb</ref>
On plantsEdit
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The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, Enquiry into Plants ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, generally known as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), and On the Causes of Plants (Greek: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Latin: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages,Template:Sfn the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some, following Linnaeus, call him the "father of botany".Template:Sfn
The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc.<ref name="Long1842">Template:Harvnb</ref> The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices, gums, resins, etc.<ref name="Long1842" />
On the Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants.<ref name="Long1842" /> The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned.<ref name="Long1842" /> A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work.<ref>Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, Ancient Botany, 2015, p. 10.</ref>
Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, they include valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants.<ref name="Long1842" /> Theophrastus observed the process of germination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander the Great: <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
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Theophrastus's Enquiry into Plants was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza, at Treviso, 1483;Template:Efn in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared.Template:Efn Christian Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, the Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library, which was not made known to J. G. Schneider, who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
On moral charactersEdit
His book Template:AnchorCharacters ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury (1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628), 17-century poet Samuel Butler (1613), and Jean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated the Characters.Template:Sfn George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus's Characters, most notably in her book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such. Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology.Template:Citation needed
On sensationEdit
A treatise On Sense Perception ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the sixth century.<ref name="Long1842" /> With this type of work we may connect the fragments on Smells, on Fatigue, on Dizziness, on Sweat, on Swooning, on Palsy, and on Honey.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" />
PhysicsEdit
Fragments of a History of Physics ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are extant. To this class of work belong the still extant sections on Fire, on the Winds, and on the signs of Waters, Winds, and Storms.<ref>Probably out of the fourth book of the Meteorology ("ἐν τετάρτῃ περὶ μεταρσίων") of Theophrastus: see Plutarch, Quaest. Gr. vii.</ref>
Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of Johann Gottlob Schneider (1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer (1842–62) and in Hermann Usener's Analecta Theophrastea.Template:Sfn
MetaphysicsEdit
The Metaphysics (anachronistic Greek title: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}),<ref>Dimitri Gutas (ed.), Theophrastus – On First Principles: known as His Metaphysics, Brill, 2010, p. 10.</ref> in nine chapters (also known as On First Principles), was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos, Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus, Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus, especially as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" />
On stonesEdit
In his treatise On Stones ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), which would become a source for other lapidaries until at least the Renaissance,Template:Sfn Theophrastus classified rocks and gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber and magnetite, which both have the power of attraction.<ref name="Cuvier1830">Template:Harvnb.</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref><ref>Template:Harvnb.</ref>
Theophrastus describes different marbles; mentions coal, which he says is used for heating by metal-workers; describes the various metal ores; and knew that pumice stones had a volcanic origin. He also deals with precious stones, emeralds, amethysts, onyx, jasper, etc., and describes a variety of "sapphire" that was blue with veins of gold, and thus was presumably lapis lazuli.<ref name="Cuvier1830" />
He knew that pearls came from shellfish, that coral came from India, and speaks of the fossilized remains of organic life.<ref name="Cuvier1830" /> He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as the minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such as ochre; and for the manufacture of plaster.<ref name="Cuvier1830" />
Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and Theophrastus mentions the famous copper mines of Cyprus and the even more famous silver mines, presumably of Laurium near Athens – the basis of the wealth of the city – as well as referring to gold mines. The Laurium silver mines, which were the property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the end of the fifth century BCE the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea from Template:Circa BCE. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo (Template:Circa BCE to Template:Circa CE) records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias (Template:Circa to Template:Circa) speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work On Mining,Template:Sfn which – like most of his writings – is a lost work.
Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although Pliny's treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic,Template:Sfn although he did describe lyngurium, a gemstone supposedly formed of the solidified urine of the lynx (the best ones coming from wild males), which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century.Template:Sfn It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus the first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties of tourmaline, which made mineralogists of the time associate the lyngurium with it.<ref>Earle R. Caley and John F.C. Richards, Theophrastus: On Stones (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1956), page 110, line 12 of the commentary: "Watson identifies the lyngounon of Theophrastus with tourmaline, but evidently his opinion is partly based on the attractive properties of heated tourmaline which had recently been discovered. This identification is repeated by various later writers. For example, Dana states that lyncurium is supposed to be the ancient name for common tourmaline. However, the absence of tourmaline among surviving examples of ancient gems is clearly against this view."</ref> Lyngurium is described in the work of Theophrastus as being similar to amber, capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but without specifying any pyroelectric properties.<ref>Earle R. Caley and John F.C. Richards, Theophrastus: On Stones (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1956), page 51, paragraph 28 of the original text: "It [smaragdos] is remarkable in its powers, and so is the lyngourion [i.e., lynx-urine stone] … . It has the power of attraction, just as amber has, and some say that it not only attracts straws and bits of wood, but also copper and iron, if the pieces are thin, as Diokles used to explain."</ref>
PhilosophyEdit
The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or defined them more accurately, or conceived them in a different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his writings.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" /> Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the works of later writers such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and Simplicius.<ref>Template:CitationTemplate:Dead link</ref>
LogicEdit
Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric, since in his book on the elements of speech, he distinguished the main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and also direct expressions ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) of speech.<ref>Simplicius, in Categ. 8.</ref> He further distinguished a twofold reference of speech ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) to things ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} Template:Transliteration) and to the hearers, and referred poetry and rhetoric to the latter.<ref>Ammonius, de Interpr. 53; Schol. in Arist. 108, 27.</ref>
He wrote at length on the unity of judgment,<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. f. 128, 124; Schol. in Arist. 184. 24. 183, b. 2; Boethius, de Interpr.</ref> on the different kinds of negation,<ref>Ammonius, in Arist. de Interpr. 128; Schol. in Arist. 121. 18.</ref> and on the difference between unconditional and conditional necessity.<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. f. 12. 6; Schol. in Arist. 149. 44.</ref> In his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the modi of the syllogisms,<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 14, 72, 73, 82. 22, b, 35; Boethius, de Syll. categ. ii. 594. 5, f. 603, 615.</ref> partly in the proof of them,<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 39, b</ref> partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion.<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 39, b. etc. 40, 42, 56, b. 82, 64, b. 51; John Phil. xxxii, b. etc.</ref> Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them;<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Anal. Pr. 115.</ref> and further, with hypothetical conclusions.<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Arist. Anal. Pr. 109, b. etc. 131, b.; John Phil. lx. etc. lxxv.; Boethius, de Syll. hypoth.</ref> For the doctrine of proof, Galen quotes the second Analytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as the best treatises on that doctrine.<ref>Galen, de Hippocr. et Plat. Dogm. ii. 2.</ref> In different monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science. To this, too, may have belonged the proposition quoted from his Topics, that the principles of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus.<ref>Simplicius, in Categ. f. 5; Schol. p. 89. 15; comp. Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Metaph. 342. 30.</ref> For the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from the Topica of Theophrastus.<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Top. 5, 68, 72, 25, 31.</ref> Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas,<ref>Alexander of Aphrodisias, in Top. 83, 189.</ref> which, without doubt, corresponded to book Ε of Aristotle's Metaphysics.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" />
Physics and metaphysicsEdit
Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requires principles,<ref>Simplicius, in Phys. f. 1, 6.</ref> and first and foremost, motion, as the basis of all change.<ref>Simplicius, in Phys. f. 5, 6.</ref> Denying the substance of space, he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as the mere arrangement and position (Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration) of bodies.<ref>Simplicius, in Phys. 149, b. 141.</ref> Time he called an accident of motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion.<ref>Simplicius, in Phys. f. 87, b; John Phil. 213. 4.</ref> He attacked the doctrine of the four classical elements and challenged whether fire could be called a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its own nutriment.<ref>Theophrastus, On Fire, 1.</ref>
He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of motion, since on the one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle.<ref>Simplicius, in Categ.; comp. Simplicius, in Phys. 94, 201, 202, 1.</ref> He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an activity, not carrying its own goal in itself (Template:Transliteration), of that which only potentially exists,<ref>Simplicius, l. c. and f. 94, 1.</ref> but he opposed Aristotle's view that motion required a special explanation, and he regarded it as something proper both to nature in general and the celestial system in particular:
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Surely, then, if the life in animals does not need explanation or is to be explained only in this way, may it not be the case that in the heavens too, and in the heavenly bodies, movement does not need explanation or is to be explained in a special way?{{#if:Theophrastus, Metaphysics, 10a.16–29.Template:Sfn |{{#if:|}}
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He recognised no activity without motion,<ref>Simplicius, in Categ.</ref> and so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment (Template:Transliteration) and contemplation to spiritual motion.<ref>Simplicius, in Phys. 225.</ref> The idea of a spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it.<ref>Themistius, in Arist. de An. 89, b. 91, b.</ref> Other Peripatetics, like Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and especially Strato, developed further this naturalism in Aristotelian doctrine.
Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where the investigation overstepped the limits of experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially apparent in his Metaphysics.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" /> He was doubtful of Aristotle's teleology and recommended that such ideas be used with caution:
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With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain, the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it is usually stated to be ... we must set certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist in all cases without qualification.{{#if:Theophrastus, Metaphysics, 10a.22–24, 11a.1–3.Template:Sfn|{{#if:|}}
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He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena.<ref name="SmithDGRBM" /> In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and consistency respecting God, and had understood it at one time as Heaven, at another an (enlivening) breath (pneuma).<ref>Clement of Alexandria, Protrept.; Cicero, de Natura Deorum, i. 13.</ref>
EthicsEdit
Theophrastus did not allow a happiness resting merely upon virtue,<ref>Cicero, Academica, i. 10, Tusculanae Quaestiones, v. 9.</ref> or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality. He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend,<ref>Aulus Gellius, i. 3. § 23.</ref> and had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in the Callisthenes, "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom" ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}).<ref>Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, iii. 10; comp. Alexander of Aphrodisias, de Anima, ii.</ref> That in the definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it.Template:Sfn Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative (theoretical), to active (practical) life,<ref>Cicero, ad Atticus, ii. 16.</ref> he preferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family life, etc. in a manner of which Aristotle would not have approved.<ref>Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, i, 189.</ref>
Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do.<ref name=Taylor35>Taylor, Angus. Animals and Ethics. Broadview Press, p. 35.</ref>
The "portrait" of TheophrastusEdit
The marble herm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads did not find a ready market in post-Renaissance Rome.Template:Efn This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani, Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings<ref>Template:Harvnb notes Statius pl. xiii; Galle pl. 143; Bellori pl. 38; Gronovius, vol. II p. 92; Visconti, 180–3 pl. xxi, 1–2.</ref> and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb Classical Library Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. André Thevet illustrated<ref>Thevet, ch. 31; Template:Harvnb notes that it had been illustrated by Template:Harvnb in "the first critical collection of ancient portraiture" Template:Harv.</ref> in his iconographic compendium, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from the bust, supporting his fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch.<ref>Noted by Template:Harvnb, figs 15 and 16.</ref>
In popular cultureEdit
- "Theophrastus", second middle name of 16th century alchemist Paracelsus.
- Impressions of Theophrastus Such, a fictional work by George Eliot, published 1879, comprising character studies ostensibly written by the eponymous Such.
- "Theophrastus", a planet in the 2014 Firefly graphic novel Serenity: Leaves on the Wind.Template:Citation needed
- "Theophrastus", the given name of Dr. Seuss, pen-name of Theodor Geisel.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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- Theophrastus, a 2001 board game in which players compete in a series of Alchemy experiments to become Theophrastus's apprentice.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
|CitationClass=web }}</ref>
WorksEdit
- Template:Cite book
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- Metaphysics (or On First Principles).
- Translated by M. van Raalte, 1993, Brill.
- On First Principles. Translated by Dimitri Gutas, 2010, Brill.
- Enquiry into Plants: Books 1–5. Translated by A. F. Hort, 1916. Loeb Classical Library. Template:ISBN Vol 1 – Vol 2
- Enquiry into Plants: Books 6–9; Treatise on Odours; Concerning Weather Signs. Translated by A. F. Hort, 1926. Loeb Classical Library. Template:ISBN
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Translated to French by Suzanne Amigues. Paris, Les Belles Lettres. 1988–2006. 5 tomes. Tome 1, Livres I-II. 1988. LVIII-146 p. Tome II, Livres III-IV. 1989. 306 p. Tome III, Livres V-VI. 1993. 212 p. Tome IV, Livres VII-VIII, 2003. 238 p. Tome V, Livres IX. 2006. LXX-400 p. First edition in French. Identifications are up-to-date, and carefully checked with botanists. Greek names with identifications are on Pl@ntUse.
- {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Translated by B. Einarson and G. Link, 1989–1990. Loeb Classical Library. 3 volumes: Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN, Template:ISBN.
- On Characters Template:In lang
- Translated by R. C. Jebb, 1870.
- Translated by J. M. Edmonds, 1929, with parallel text.
- Translated by J. Rusten, 2003. Loeb Classical Library. Template:ISBN
- On Sweat, On Dizziness and On Fatigue. Translated by W. Fortenbaugh, R. Sharples, M. Sollenberger. Brill 2002. Template:ISBN
- On Weather Signs.
- Translated by J. G. Wood, G. J. Symons, 1894.
- Edited by Sider David and Brunschön Carl Wolfram. Brill 2007.
- On Stones
Modern editionsEdit
- Theophrastus' Characters: An Ancient Take on Bad Behavior by James Romm (author), Pamela Mensch (translator), and André Carrilho (illustrator), Callaway Arts & Entertainment, 2018.
BrillEdit
The International Theophrastus Project started by Brill Publishers in 1992.
- 1. Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for His Life, Writings, Thought and Influence (two volumes), edited by William Fortenbaugh et al., Leiden: Brill, 1992.
- 1.1. Life, Writings, Various Reports, Logic, Physics, Metaphysics, Theology, Mathematics [Texts 1–264].
- 1.2. Psychology, Human Physiology, Living Creatures, Botany, Ethics, Religion, Politics, Rhetoric and Poetics, Music, Miscellanea [Texts 265–741].
- ff. 9 volumes are planned; the published volumes are:
- 1. Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for His Life, Writings, Thought and Influence — Commentary, Leiden: Brill, 1994
- 2. Logic [Texts 68–136], by Pamela Huby (2007); with contributions on the Arabic material by Dimitri Gutas.
- 3.1. Sources on Physics (Texts 137–223), by R. W. Sharples (1998).
- 4. Psychology (Texts 265–327), by Pamela Huby (1999); with contributions on the Arabic material by Dimitri Gutas.
- 5. Sources on Biology (Human Physiology, Living Creatures, Botany: Texts 328–435), by R. W. Sharples (1994).
- 6.1. Sources on Ethics [Texts 436–579B], by William W. Fortenbaugh; with contributions on the Arabic material by Dimitri Gutas (2011).
- 8. Sources on Rhetoric and Poetics (Texts 666–713), by William W. Fortenbaugh (2005); with contributions on the Arabic material by Dimitri Gutas.
- 9.1. Sources On Music (Texts 714-726C), by Massimo Raffa (2018).
- 9.2. Sources on Discoveries and Beginnings, Proverbs et al. (Texts 727–741), by William W. Fortenbaugh (2014).
Explanatory notesEdit
CitationsEdit
General and cited referencesEdit
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Further readingEdit
- Baltussen, H. 2016. The Peripatetics: Aristotle's Heirs 322 BCE–200 CE. London: Routledge.
- Fortenbaugh, W. W., and D. Gutas, eds. 1992. Theophrastus: His Psychological, Doxographical and Scientific Writings. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities 5. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Books.
- Mejer, J. 1998. "A Life in Fragments: The Vita Theophrasti." In Theophrastus: Reappraising the Sources. Edited by J. van Ophuijsen and M. van Raalte, 1–28. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities 8. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Books.
- Pertsinidis, S. 2018. Theophrastus' Characters: A new introduction. London: Routledge.
- Van Raalte, M. 1993. Theophrastus' Metaphysics. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
- Wöhrle, G. 2019. Theophrast von Eresos. Universalwissenschaftler im Kreis des Aristoteles und Begründer der wissenschaftlichen Botanik. Eine Einführung. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier. Template:ISBN.
External linksEdit
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project Template:Library resources box
- Works by Theophrastus at Perseus Digital Library
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- Template:Cite book—Contains a translation of On the Senses by Theophrastus.
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- Project Theophrastus Template:In lang
- Online Galleries, University of Oklahoma Libraries Template:Webarchive
- Theophrastus of Eresus at the Edward Worth Library, Dublin
- Theophrastus, Enquiry into Plants, Hort's English translation of 1916, as html tagged with geolocated place references, at ToposText
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Template:Aristotelianism Template:Peripatetics Template:Ancient anaesthesia-footer Template:Natural history Template:History of botany Template:History of biology