Tuareg languages

Template:Short description Template:Infobox language family

Tuareg (Template:IPAc-en), also known as Tamasheq (Template:IPAc-en), Tamajaq or Tamahaq (Tifinagh: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), is a group of closely related Berber varieties. They are spoken by the Tuareg Berbers in large parts of Mali, Niger, Algeria, Libya, and Burkina Faso, with a few speakers, the Kinnin, in Chad.<ref>Monique Jay, "Quelques éléments sur les Kinnin d’Abbéché (Tchad)". Études et Documents Berbères 14 (1996), 199–212 ({{#if:0295-5245|Template:Catalog lookup link{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}{{#if:Template:Trim|{{#ifeq:Template:Yesno-no|yes|Template:Main other|{{#invoke:check isxn|check_issn|Template:Trim|error=Template:Error-small Template:Main other}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}|Template:Error-small}} Template:ISBN).</ref>

DescriptionEdit

The Tuareg varieties, on account of their low internal diversity and high mutual intercomprehensibility, are commonly regarded as a single language by linguists (as for instance by Karl-Gottfried Prasse). They are distinguished mainly by a few sound shifts (notably affecting the pronunciation of original z and h). The Tuareg varieties are unusually conservative in some respects; they retain two short vowels where Northern Berber languages have one or none, and have a much lower proportion of Arabic loanwords than most Berber languages.Template:Cn

The Tuareg languages are traditionally written in the indigenous Tifinagh alphabet. However, the Arabic script is commonly used in some areas (and has been since medieval times), while the Latin script is official in Mali and Niger.Template:Cn

SubclassificationEdit

Template:Tree list

Tuareg
- Northern
  - Tamahaq – language of the Kel Ahaggar, and Kel Ajjer spoken in Algeria, western Libya and in the north of Niger by around 77,000 people. Also known as Tahaggart.
- Southern
  - Tamasheq – language of the Kel Adrar (also known as Adrar des Ifoghas), spoken in Mali by approximately 500,000 people.
  - Air Tamajaq – language of the Kel Ayer (sometimes spelled Aïr), spoken in Niger by approximately 250,000 people.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

- - Tawellemet – language of the Iwellemmeden, spoken in Mali and Niger by approximately 800,000 people. The term Iwellemmeden (the name of the people) is sometimes used to denote the language.
  - Tamashaq language of Kal Asakan.Template:Citation needed

Template:Tree list/end

Blench (ms, 2006) lists the following as separate languages, with dialects in parentheses:<ref>AA list, Blench, ms, 2006</ref>

Tawellemet (Abalagh/East, West)
Tayiṛt (Ingal, Gofat)
Tamesgrest (Azerori)
Tafaghist
Tahaggart/Ahaggar
Ghat

Speakers of Tin Sert (Tetserret) identify as Tuareg, but the language is Tetserret, a Western Berber.

OrthographyEdit

The Tuareg languages may be written using the ancient Tifinagh (Libyco-Berber) script, the Latin script or the Arabic script. The Malian national literacy program DNAFLA has established a standard for the Latin alphabet, which is used with modifications in Prasse's Lexique and the government literacy program in Burkina, while in Niger a different system was used. There is also some variation in Tifinagh and in the Arabic script.Template:Sfn

Early uses of the Tifinagh script have been found on rock art and in various sepulchres. Among these are the 1,500 year old monumental tomb of the Tuareg matriarch Tin Hinan, where vestiges of a Tifinagh inscription have been found on one of its walls.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref>

Tifinagh usage is now restricted mainly to writing magical formulae, writing on palms when silence is required, and in letter-writing.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The Arabic script is mostly in use by tribes more involved in Islamic learning, and little is known about its conventions.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

File:Tifinagh abjad.png

Traditional Tifinagh, including various ligatures of t and n. Gemination is not indicated. Most of the letters have more than one common form. When the letters l and n are adjacent to themselves or to each other, the second one is inclined: ⵍ ("l"), ⵏⵏ ("nn"), ⵍⵏ ("ln"), ⵏⵍ ("nl"), ⵍⵍ ("ll"), ⵏⵏⵏ ("nnn").

Representative alphabets for TuaregTemplate:Sfn<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
Image	Unicode		DNAFLA (Mali)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation		Niger<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation			Arabic
CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>	DNAFLA (Mali)<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>	Niger<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1\|citation	CitationClass=web }}</ref>	Tifinagh	Arabic
a	a
	â
ă	ă
ǝ	ǝ
b	b	File:2D40.png	ⵀ	ب
(ḅ)
	c
d	d	File:2D37.png	ⴷ	د
ḍ	ḍ	File:2D39.png	ⴹ	ض
e	e
	ê
f	f	File:2D3C.png	ⴼ	ف
g	g	File:2D33.png	ⴳ	[[Gaf\|Template:Script/Arabic]]
i	i
	î
j	j	File:2D36.png	ⴶ	چ
	ǰ
ɣ	ɣ	File:2D57.png	ⵗ	غ
h	h	File:2D42.png	ⵂ	ه
k	k	File:2D3E.png	ⴾ	ک
l	l	File:2D4D.png	ⵍ	ل
ḷ	ḷ
m	m	File:2D4E.png	ⵎ	م
n	n	File:2D4F.png	ⵏ	ن
ŋ	ŋ
o	o
	ô
q	q	File:2D46.png File:2D48.png	ⵆ, ⵈ	ق
r	r	File:2D54.png	ⵔ	ر
s	s	File:2D59.png	ⵙ	س
ṣ	ṣ	File:2D5A.png	ⵚ	ص
š (ʃ)	š	File:2D5B.png	ⵛ	ش
t	t	File:2D5C.png	ⵜ	ت
ṭ	ṭ	File:2D5F.png	ⵟ	ط
u	u
	û
w	w	File:2D53.png	ⵓ	و
x	x	File:2D45.png	ⵅ	خ
y	y	File:2D62.png File:2D49.png	ⵢ, ⵉ	ي
z	z	File:2D4C.png File:2D63.png	ⵌ, ⵣ	ز
ẓ	ẓ	File:2D65.png	ⵥ	ظ
ž (ʒ)	ǧ	File:2D4A.png	ⵊ	ج
ḥ		File:2D46.png	ⵆ	ح
(ʕ)		File:2D44.png	ⵄ	ع

The DNAFLA system is a somewhat morphophonemic orthography, not indicating initial vowel shortening, always writing the directional particle as < dd⟩, and not indicating all assimilations (e.g. Template:Angbr for [tămašăq]).Template:Sfn

In Burkina Faso the emphatics are denoted by "hooked" letters, as in Fula, e.g. Template:Angbr.Template:Sfn

PhonologyEdit

VowelsEdit

The vowel system includes five long vowels, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and two short vowels, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (on this page, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is used to represent IPA {{#invoke:IPA|main}}). Some of the vowels have more open "emphatic" allophones that occur immediately before emphatic consonants, subject to dialectal variation. These allophones include {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (although {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be less open), {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (although {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may be less open), and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} for {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn Karl Prasse argued that /e/ goes back to Proto-Berber, while /o/ is derived from /u/.<ref>K.-G. Prasse (1990), New Light on the Origin of the Tuareg Vowels E and O, in: H. G. Mukarovsky (ed), Proceedings of the Fifth International Hamito-Semitic Congress, Vienna, I 163–170.</ref> Comparative evidence shows that /ə/ derives from a merger of Proto-Berber */ĭ/ and */ŭ/.

Sudlow classes the "semivowels" /w, j/ with the vowels, and notes the following possible diphthongs: /əw/ (> [u]), /ăw/, /aw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ow/, /uw/, /əj/ (> [i]), /ăj/, /aj/, /ej/, /ij/, /oj/, /uj/.Template:Sfn

ConsonantsEdit

Tamasheq consonantsTemplate:Sfn
		Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
		Labial	plain	emphatic	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink			Template:IPAlink Template:Efn
Plosive	Template:Small		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink		(Template:IPAlink)
Plosive	Template:Small	b	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink Template:Notetag	Template:IPAlink
Fricative	Template:Small	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	(Template:IPAlink)Template:Efn	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink Template:Efn		(Template:IPAlink)Template:Efn	Template:IPAlink
Fricative	Template:Small		Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink	Template:IPAlink Template:Efn	Template:IPAlink Template:Efn		(Template:IPAlink)Template:Efn
Lateral			Template:IPAlink	(Template:IPAlink)Template:Efn

Template:Notelist

The consonant inventory largely resembles Arabic: differentiated voicing; uvulars, pharyngeals (traditionally referred to as emphatics) {{#invoke:IPA|main}}; requiring the pharynx muscles to contract and influencing the pronunciation of the following vowel, and no voiceless bilabial plosive.Template:Sfn

The glottal stop is non-phonemic. It occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words to fill the place of the initial consonant in the syllable structure (see below), although if the words is preceded by a word ending in a consonant, it makes a liaison instead. Phrase-final /a/ is also followed by a phonetic glottal stop.Template:Sfn

Gemination is contrastive.Template:Sfn Normally {{#invoke:IPA|main}} becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} becomes {{#invoke:IPA|main}}.Template:Sfn {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are predominantly geminate. In addition, in Tadɣaq {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is usually geminate, but in Tudalt singleton {{#invoke:IPA|main}} may occur.Template:Sfn

Voicing assimilation occurs, with the first consonant taking the voicing of the second (e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}}).Template:Sfn

Cluster reduction turns word/morpheme-final {{#invoke:IPA|main}} into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} into {{#invoke:IPA|main}} (e.g. {{#invoke:IPA|main}} > {{#invoke:IPA|main}} 'Tamasheq'Template:Notetag).Template:Sfn

PhonotacticsEdit

Syllable structure is CV(C)(C), including glottal stops (see above).Template:Sfn

SuprasegmentalsEdit

Contrastive stress may occur in the stative aspect of verbs.Template:Sfn

Dialectal differencesEdit

Different dialects have slightly different consonant inventories. Some of these differences can be diachronically accounted for. For example, Proto-Berber *h is mostly lost in Ayer Tuareg, while it is maintained in almost every position in Mali Tuareg. The Iwellemmeden and Ahaggar Tuareg dialects are midway between these positions.Template:Sfn Template:Sfn The Proto-Berber consonant *z comes out differently in different dialects, a development that is to some degree reflected in the dialect names. It is realized as h in Tamahaq (Tahaggart), as š in Tamasheq and as simple z in the Tamajaq dialects Tawallammat and Tayart. In the latter two, *z is realised as ž before palatal vowels, explaining the form Tamajaq. In Tawallammat and especially Tayart, this kind of palatalization actually does not confine itself to z. In these dialects, dentals in general are palatalized before {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. For example, tidət is pronounced {{#invoke:IPA|main}} in Tayart.<ref>Prasse e.a. 2003:xiv</ref>

Other differences can easily be traced back to borrowing. For example, the Arabic pharyngeals ħ and ʻ have been borrowed along with Arabic loanwords by dialects specialized in Islamic (Maraboutic) learning. Other dialects substitute ħ and ʻ respectively with x and ɣ.

GrammarEdit

The basic word order in Tuareg is verb–subject–object. Verbs can be grouped into 19 morphological classes; some of these classes can be defined semantically. Verbs carry information on the subject of the sentence in the form of pronominal marking. No simple adjectives exist in the Tuareg languages; adjectival concepts are expressed using a relative verb form traditionally called 'participle'. The Tuareg languages have very heavily influenced Northern Songhay languages such as Sawaq, whose speakers are culturally Tuareg but speak Songhay; this influence includes points of phonology and sometimes grammar as well as extensive loanwords.

SyntaxEdit

Tamasheq prefers VSO order; however it contains topic–comment structure (like in American Sign Language, Modern Hebrew, Japanese and Russian), allowing the emphasized concept to be placed first, be it the subject or object, the latter giving an effect somewhat like the English passive.Template:Sfn Sudlow uses the following examples, all expressing the concept "Men don't cook porridge" (e denotes Sudlow's schwa):

lang}}	SVO
lang}}	VSO
lang}}	'Porridge, men don't cook it.'
lang}}	'It isn't men who cook porridge.'
lang}}	'Men are not those who cook porridge.'

Again like Japanese, the "pronoun/particle 'a' is used with a following relative clause to bring a noun in a phrase to the beginning for emphasis," a structure which can be used to emphasize even objects of prepositions.Template:Sfn Sudlow's example (s denotes voiceless palato-alveolar fricative):

lang}}	'I bought millet.'
lang}}	'It was millet that I bought.'

The indirect object marker takes the form i/y in Tudalt and e/y in Tadɣaq.Template:Sfn

MorphologyEdit

As a root-and-pattern, or templatic language, triliteral roots (three-consonant bases) are the most common in Tamasheq. Niels and Regula Christiansen use the root k-t-b (to write) to demonstrate past completed aspect conjugation:

Tamasheq subject affixesTemplate:Sfn
		singular	plural
1st person		lang}}	lang}}
2nd person		lang}}	lang}}
3rd person	Template:Gcl	lang}}	lang}}
3rd person	Template:Gcl	lang}}	lang}}
Participle form, i.e. "who ..."	Template:Gcl	lang}}	lang}}
Participle form, i.e. "who ..."	Template:Gcl	lang}}	lang}}

Conjugation of k-t-b 'write'Template:Sfn
Person		Singular	Plural
1st		Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear
2nd	(m)	Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear
2nd	(f)	Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear
3rd	(m)	Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear
3rd	(f)	Template:Interlinear	Template:Interlinear

The verbal correspondence with the use of aspect; Tamasheq uses four, as delineated by Sudlow:

Perfective: complete actions
Stative: "lasting states as the ongoing results of a completed action."
Imperfective: future or possible actions, "often used following a verb expressing emotion, decision or thought," it can be marked with "'ad'" (shortened to "'a-'" with prepositions).
Cursive: ongoing actions, often habitual ones.

aspects
Verb	Perfective/simple perfect	Stative/intensive perfect	Imperfective/simple perfect	Cursive/intensive imperfect
z-g-r	izgăr	izgăr
z-g-r	'He went out'	'He has gone out'
b-d-d	ibdăd	ibdăd
b-d-d	'He stood up'	'He stood up (and so he is standing up)'
	ekkeɣ hebu	ekkêɣ hebu
	'I went to market'	'I am going to market'
l-m-d			ad elmedăɣ Tămasăq	lammădăɣ Tămasăq
l-m-d			'I will learn Tamasheq'	'I am learning Tamasheq'
			a-dd-as asekka
			'He will arrive (here) tomorrow'
				iwan tattănăt alemmoZ
				'Cows eat straw'
				ăru tasăɣalăɣ siha
				'I used to work over there'

Commands are expressed in the imperative mood, which tends to be a form of the imperfective aspect, unless the action is to be repeated or continued, in which case the cursive aspect is preferred.Template:Sfn