Tukaram
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Tukaram (Marathi pronunciation: [t̪ukaːɾam]), also known as Tuka, Tukobaraya and Tukoba, was a Hindu Marathi saint of the Warkari sampradaya in Dehu village, Maharashtra in the 17th century.<ref>Maxine Bernsten (1988), The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra, State University of New York Press, Template:ISBN, pages 248-249</ref><ref name="annaschultz" /> He was a bhakt of the god Vithoba, also known as Vitthal, of Pandharpur.<ref name="mohanlal" /> He is best known for his devotional poetry called Abhanga, which are popular in Maharashtra, many of his poems<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> deal with social reform.<ref name="annaschultz">Anna Schultz (2012), Singing a Hindu Nation: Marathi Devotional Performance and Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, page 62</ref> His poems are included in the school and college syllabuses prominently in the state of Maharashtra.
BiographyEdit
Early lifeEdit
Tukaram was born in modern-day Maharashtra state of India. His complete name was Tukaram Bolhoba Ambile.Template:Sfn
He spent most of his later years in devotional worship, community kirtans (group prayers with singing) and composing Abhanga poetry.<ref name="mohanlal" />Template:Sfn<ref name="zelliot">Eleanor Zelliot (1976), Hinduism: New Essays in the History of Religions (Editor: Bardwell L Smith), Brill Academic, Template:ISBN, pages 154-156</ref>
Tukaram pointed out the evil of wrongdoings of society, social system and Maharajs by his Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration.<ref name="बहु फार विटंबिले">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He faced some opposition in society because of this. A man named Mambaji harassed him a lot, he was running a Template:Transliteration in Dehu and had some followers.<ref name="बहु फार विटंबिले"/> Initially Tukaram gave him the job of doing puja at his temple, but he was jealous of Tukaram by seeing Tukaram getting respect among the village people. He once hit Tukaram by thorn's stick.<ref name="बहु फार विटंबिले"/> He used foul language against Tukaram.<ref name="बहु फार विटंबिले"/> Later Mambaji also became admirer of Tukaram. He became his devotee. Tukaram met Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj – a leader who founded the Maratha Empire;<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=abbott /> Their continued interaction is the subject of legends.<ref name=abbott>Justin Edwards Abbott (2000), Life of Tukaram, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN, page 320</ref>Template:Sfn Eleanor Zelliot states that Bhakti movement poets including Tukaram were influential in Shivaji's rise to power.<ref name=zelliot/> It is also happened that Tukaram Maharaj saved Chhatrapati Shivaji's life from the chasing Mughals.
It is agreed by historians that Saint Tukaram died in 1650.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Philosophy and practicesEdit
VedantaEdit
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In his work of Abhangas, Tukarama repeatedly refers to four people who had a primary influence on his spiritual development, namely the earlier Bhakti Sants Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Kabir and Eknath.Template:Sfn Early 20th-century scholars on Tukaram considered his teachings to be Vedanta-based but lacking a systematic theme. JF Edwards wrote,
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Tukaram is never systematic in his psychology, his theology, or his theodicy. He oscillates between a Dvaitist [Vedanta] and an Advaitist view of God and the world, leaning now to a pantheistic scheme of things, now to a distinctly Providential, and he does not harmonize them. He says little about cosmogony, and according to him, God realizes Himself in the devotion of His worshippers. Likewise, faith is essential to their realization of Him: 'It is our faith that makes thee a god', he says boldly to his Vithoba.<ref>JF Edwards (1921), Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics: Suffering-Zwingli, Volume 12, Editors: James Hastings, John Alexander Selbie and Louis Herbert Gray, New York: Charles Scribner, Reprinted in 2000 as Template:ISBN, page 468</ref>{{#if:|{{#if:|}}
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Late 20th-century scholarship of Tukaram, and translations of his Abhanga poem, affirm his pantheistic Vedantic view.Template:Sfn Tukaram's Abhanga 2877, as translated by Shri Gurudev Ranade of Nimbal states, for example, "The Vedanta has said that the whole universe is filled by God. All sciences have proclaimed that God has filled the whole world. The Puranas have unmistakably taught the universal immanence of God. The sants have told us that the world is filled by God. Tuka indeed is playing in the world uncontaminated by it like the Sun which stands absolutely transcendent".Template:Sfn
Scholars note the often discussed controversy, particularly among Marathi people, whether Tukaram subscribed to the monistic Vedanta philosophy of Adi Shankara.<ref name=bhandarkar>R G Bhandarkar (2014), Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, Routledge, Template:ISBN, pages 98-99</ref><ref>Charles Eliot (1998), Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch, Volume 2, Routledge, Template:ISBN, page 258, Quote: "Maratha critics have discussed whether Tukaram followed the monistic philosophy of Sankara or more, and it must be confessed that his utterances are contradictory."</ref> Bhandarkar notes that Abhanga 300, 1992 and 2482 attributed to Tukaram are in style and philosophy of Adi Shankara:<ref name=bhandarkar />
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<poem> When salt is dissolved in water, what is it that remains distinct? I have thus become one in joy with thee [Vithoba, God] and have lost myself in thee. When fire and camphor are brought together, is there any black remnant left? Tuka says, thou and I are one light. </poem> {{#if:Tukaram Gatha, 2482|{{#if:|}}
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However, scholars also note that other Abhangas attributed to Tukaram criticize monism, and favor dualistic Vedanta philosophy of the Indian philosophers Madhvacharya and Ramanuja.<ref name=bhandarkar /> In Abhanga 1471, according to Bhandarkar's translation, Tukaram says, "When monism is expounded without faith and love, the expounder as well as the hearer are troubled and afflicted. He who calls himself Brahma and goes on in his usual way, should not be spoken to and is a buffoon. The shameless one who speaks heresy in opposition to the Vedas is an object of scorn among holy men."<ref name=bhandarkar />
Tukaram denounced mechanical rites, rituals, sacrifices, vows and instead encouraged direct form of bhakti (devotion).<ref name=bhandarkar /><ref>David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, Template:ISBN, page 130</ref>
KirtanEdit
Tukaram encouraged kirtan as a music imbued, community-oriented group singing and dancing form of bhakti.<ref name=annaschultz /> He considered kirtan not just a means to learn about Bhakti, but Bhakti itself.<ref name=annaschultz /> The greatest merit in kirtan, according to Tukaram, is it being not only a spiritual path for the devotee, it helps create a spiritual path for others.<ref name=annaschultz2>Anna Schultz (2012), Singing a Hindu Nation: Marathi Devotional Performance and Nationalism, Oxford University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 25-28</ref>
Social reformsEdit
Tukaram accepted disciples and devotees without discriminating on the basis of gender. One of his celebrated devotees was Bahina Bai, a Brahmin woman, who faced anger and abuse of her husband when she chose Bhakti marga and Tukaram as her guru.Template:Sfn
Tukaram taught, states Ranade,Template:Sfn that "pride of caste never made any man holy", "the Vedas and Shastras have said that for the service of God, castes do not matter", "castes do not matter, it is God's name that matters", and "an outcast who loves the Name of God is verily a Brahmin; in him have tranquility, forbearance, compassion and courage made their home".Template:Sfn However, early 20th century scholars questioned whether Tukaram himself observed caste when his daughters from his second wife married men of their own caste.<ref name=frasercaste /> Fraser and Edwards, in their 1921 review of Tukaram, stated that this is not necessarily so, because people in the West too generally prefer relatives to marry those of their own economic and social strata.<ref name=frasercaste>The Life and Teaching of Tukaram J Nelson Fraser, and JF Edwards, Probsthain, Christian Literature Society, pages 163, 54-55</ref>
David Lorenzen states that the acceptance, efforts and reform role of Tukaram in the Varakari-sampraday follows the diverse caste and gender distributions found in Bhakti movements across India.<ref name=lorenzervarsam /> The rest include ten Brahmins and two whose caste origins are unknown.<ref name=lorenzervarsam /> Of the twenty one, four women are celebrated as sant, born in two Brahmin and two non-Brahmin families. Tukaram's effort at social reforms within Varakari-sampraday must be viewed in this historical context and as part of the overall movement, states Lorenzen.<ref name=lorenzervarsam>David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, Template:ISBN, pages 127-128</ref>
Literary worksEdit
Tukaram composed Abhanga poetry, a Marathi genre of literature which is metrical (traditionally the ovi meter), simple, direct, and it fuses folk stories with deeper spiritual themes.
Tukaram's work is known for informal verses of rapturous abandon in folksy style, composed in vernacular language, in contrast to his predecessors such as Dnyandeva or Namdev known for combining similar depth of thought with a grace of style.<ref name=mohanlalgatha />
In one of his poems, Tukaram self-effacingly described himself as a "fool, confused, lost, liking solitude because I am wearied of the world, worshipping Vitthal (Vishnu) just like my ancestors were doing but I lack their faith and devotion, and there is nothing holy about me".Template:Sfn
Tukaram Gatha is a Marathi language compilation of his works, likely composed between 1632 and 1650.<ref name=mohanlalgatha>Mohan Lal (1993), Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, Sahitya Akademi, South Asia Books, Template:ISBN, pages 4404-4405</ref> Also called Abhanga Gatha, the Indian tradition believes it includes some 4,500 abhangas. The poems considered authentic cover a wide range of human emotions and life experiences, some autobiographical, and places them in a spiritual context.<ref name=mohanlalgatha /> He includes a discussion about the conflict between Pravritti – having passion for life, family, business, and Nivritti – the desire to renounce, leave everything behind for individual liberation, moksha.<ref name=mohanlalgatha />
Ranade states there are four major collations of Tukaram's Abhanga Gathas.Template:Sfn
AuthenticityEdit
The first compilation of Tukaram poems was published, in modern format, by Indu Prakash publishers in 1869, subsidized by the British colonial government's Bombay Presidency.<ref name=frasermss>The Life and Teaching of Tukaram J Nelson Fraser, and JF Edwards, Probsthain, Christian Literature Society, pages 119-124</ref> The 1869 edition noted, "some of the [as received] manuscripts on which the compilation relied, had been 'corrected', 'further corrected' and 'arranged'."<ref name=frasermss /> This doctoring and rewriting over about 200 years, after Tukaram's death, has raised questions whether the modern compilation of Tukaram's poems faithfully represents what Tukaram actually thought and said, and the historicity of the document. The known manuscripts are jumbled, randomly scattered collections, without chronological sequence, and each contains some poems that are not found in all other known manuscripts.Template:Sfn
Books and translationsEdit
The 18th-century biographer Mahipati, in his four volume compilation of the lives of many Bhakti movement sants, included Tukaram. Mahipati's treatise has been translated by Justin Abbott.<ref name=zelliot /><ref>Justin Abbott (2000), Tukaram: The Poet-Saints of Maharashtra, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN</ref>
A translation of about 3,700 poems from Tukaram Gatha in English was published, in three volumes, between 1909 and 1915, by Fraser and Marathe.<ref>J Nelson Fraser and KB Marathe, The Poems of Tukaram, Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN</ref> In 1922, Fraser and Edwards published his biography and religious ideas incorporating some translations of Tukaram's poems,<ref>The Life and Teaching of Tukaram J Nelson Fraser, and JF Edwards, Probsthain, Christian Literature Society</ref> and included a comparison of Tukaram's philosophy and theology with those of Christianity.<ref>The Life and Teaching of Tukaram J Nelson Fraser, and JF Edwards, Probsthain, Christian Literature Society, pages 274-278, Appendix II & III</ref> Deleury, in 1956, published a metric French translation of a selection of Tukaram's poem along with an introduction to the religious heritage of Tukaram (Deleury spells him as Toukaram).<ref>Guy A Deleury (1956), Psaumes dy Pelerin: Toukaram, Paris: Gallimard, Template:ISBN, pages 9-34</ref>
Arun Kolatkar published, in 1966, six volumes of avant-garde translations of Tukaram poems.<ref name=zelliot /> Ranade has published a critical biography and some selected translation.Template:Sfn
Dilip Chitre translated writings of Sant Tukaram into English in the book titled Says Tuka for which he was awarded the Sahitya Akademi award in 1994.Template:Sfn A selection of poems of Tukaram has been translated and published by Daniel Ladinsky.<ref>Daniel Ladinsky (2002), Love Poems from God, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages 331-352</ref>
Chandrakant Kaluram Mhatre has translated selected poems of Tukaram, published as One Hundred Poems of Tukaram.<ref>Chandrakant Kaluram Mhatre, One Hundred Poems of Tukaram, Createspace, Template:ISBN</ref>
LegacyEdit
Maharashtra societyEdit
Tukaram's abhangs are very popular in Maharashtra. It became part of the culture of the state. Varkaris, poets and peoples study his poems. His poems are popular in rural Maharashtra and their popularity is increasing.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Tukaram was a devotee of Vithoba (Vitthala), an avatar of God Vishnu, synchronous with Krishna but with regional style and features.<ref name="zelliot" /> Tukaram's literary works, along with those of sants Dnyandev, Namdev and Eknath, states Mohan Lal, are credited to have propelled Varkari tradition into pan-Indian Bhakti literature.<ref>Mohan Lal (1993), Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, Sahitya Akademi, South Asia Books, Template:ISBN, page 4403</ref>
According to Richard Eaton, from early 14th-century when Maharashtra region came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, down to the 17th-century, the legacy of Tukaram and his poet-predecessors, "gave voice to a deep-rooted collective identity among Marathi-speakers".<ref>Richard M. Eaton (2005), A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives, Cambridge University Press, Template:ISBN, pages 138-141</ref> Dilip Chitre summarizes the legacy of Tukaram and Bhakti movement sants, during this period of Hindu-Muslim wars, as transforming "language of shared religion, and religion a shared language. It is they who helped to bind the Marathas together against the Mughals on the basis not of any religious ideology but of a territorial cultural identity".<ref>Dilip Chitre (1991), Says Tuka: Selected Poetry of Tukaram, Penguin, Template:ISBN, pages xvi-xvii</ref>
Mahatma GandhiEdit
Mahatma Gandhi, in early 20th century, while under arrest in Yerwada Central Jail by the British colonial government for his non-violent movement, read and translated Tukaram's poetry along with Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and poems by other Bhakti movement poet-saints.<ref name=mkgandhi>MK Gandhi (1930), Songs from prison: translations of Indian Lyrics made in Jail, (Adapted and formatted by John Hoyland, 1934), New York : Macmillan, Template:Oclc</ref>
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<poem> Saintliness is not to be purchased in shops, nor is it to be had for wandering, nor in cupboards, nor in deserts, nor in forests. It is not obtainable for a heap of riches. It is not in the heavens above, nor in the entrails of the earth below. Tuka says: It is a life's bargain, and if you will not give your life to possess it, better be silent.
The essence of the endless Vedas is this: Seek the shelter of God and repeat His name with all thy heart. The result of the cogitations of all the Shastras is also the same. Tuka says: The burden of the eighteen Puranas is also identical.
Merit consists in doing good to others, sin in doing harm to others. There is no other pair comparable to this. Truth is the only freedom; untruth is bondage, there is no secret like this. God's name on one's lips is itself salvation, disregarding the name is perdition. Companionship of the good is the only heaven, indifference is hell. Tuka says: It is thus clear what is good and what is injurious, let people choose what they will. </poem> {{#if:Sant Tukaram|{{#if:|}}
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Sant Tukaram also had a profound influence on K. B. Hedgewar as the former's quotes often found their way on the latter's letterhead. One such letter dated April 6, 1940 bore the quote "Daya tiche nanwa bhutanche palan, aanik nirdalan kantkache", meaning compassion is not only the welfare of all living beings, but also includes protecting them from harm's way.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>
Places associated with TukaramEdit
Places associated with Tukaram in Dehu that exist today are:
- Tukaram Maharaj Janm Sthan Temple, Dehu – place where Tukaramji was born, around which a temple was built later
- Sant Tukaram Vaikunthstan Temple, Dehu – from where Tukaramji ascended to Vaikuntha (Abode of God) in his mortal formTemplate:Citation needed; there is a beautiful ghat behind this temple along the Indrayani river
- Sant Tukaram Maharaj Gatha Mandir, Dehu – modern structure; massive building housing a big statue of Tukaram; In the Gatha temple, about 4,000 abhangs (verses) created by Tukaram maharaj were carved on the walls.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation
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Movies and popular cultureEdit
A number of Indian films have been made about the saint in different languages. These include:
- Tukaram (1921) silent film by Shinde.
- Sant Tukaram (1921) silent film by Kalanidhi Pictures.
- Sant Tukaram (1936) – this movie on Tukaram was screened open-air for a year, to packed audiences in Mumbai, and numerous rural people would walk very long distances to see it.Template:Sfn
- Thukkaram (1938) in Tamil by B. N. Rao.
- Santha Thukaram (1963) in Kannada
- Sant Tukaram (1965) in Hindi
- Bhakta Tukaram (1973) in Telugu
- Tukaram (2012) in Marathi
Tukaram's life was the subject of the 68th issue of Amar Chitra Katha, India's largest comic book series.Template:Sfn
Balbharti has included a poem of Tukaram in a Marathi school textbook
The government of India had issued a 100 rupee Silver commemorative coin in 2002.<ref>Template:Cite AV media</ref>
See alsoEdit
- Bhakti movement
- Pandharpur Wari – the largest annual pilgrimage in Maharashtra that includes a ceremonial Palkhi of Tukaram
- Vitthal Temple, Pandharpur
- Sant Dnyaneshwar
ReferencesEdit
Works citedEdit
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General referencesEdit
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- "Tryambak Shankar Shejwalkar Nivadak Lekhsangrah" by T S Shejwalkar (collection- H V Mote, Introduction- G D Khanolkar)
Further readingEdit
- John Hoyland (1932), An Indian Peasant Mystic: Translations from Tukaram, London: Allenson, Template:Oclc
- Wilbur Deming (1932), Selections from Tukaram, Christian Literature Society, Template:Oclc
- Prabhakar Machwe (1977), Tukaram's Poems, United Writer, Template:Oclc
- Dilip Chitre (1970), The Bhakta as a Poet: Six Examples from Tukaram's Poetry, Delos: A Journal on and of Translation, Vol. 4, pages 132-136
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- Fraser and Marathe (1915), The Poems of Tukaram, 3 vols, Christian Literature Society Template:Oclc, Reprinted in 1981 by Motilal Banarsidass, Template:ISBN
External linksEdit
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- Collected works of Tukaram in Devnagari
- Sant Tukaram Gatha at Internet Archive
- Images, Biography: Tukaram Ram Bapat (2002), Tukaram Online, 14 Indian and 8 foreign languages
- What I Want to Say, Tukaram, Mona van Duyn (1965), Poetry, Vol. 107, No. 2, pages 102-104
- Twenty five poems, Tukaram Prabhakar Machwe (1968), Mahfil, Vol. 5, No. 1/2, pages 61–69
- Translations from Tukaram and other saint-poets, Awad Kolatkar (1982), Journal of South Asian Literature, Vol. 17, No. 1, pages 111-114