Tumbuka language

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Chitumbuka is a Bantu language which is spoken primarily in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.<ref name="Michigan">Michigan State University African Studies Center information page.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It is the native and primary language of at least eight groups of Bantu peoples, namely, the Senga, Tumbuka, Yombe, Phoka, Hewe, Balowoka, the Northern Ngoni and Tonga people, with 12 known and studied dialects.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> It is also known as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} — the chi- prefix in front of Tumbuka means "the language of", so the language is usually called Chitumbuka even in English publications. In Northern Malawi, it is spoken in 6 districts of Rumphi, Mzimba (including Mzuzu City), Karonga, Chitipa, Nkhata-Bay, and Monkey Bay.<ref>University of Malawi (2006) Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi.</ref> In Central Malawi, it is spoken in 3 districts of Kasungu, Nkhotakota and Ntchisi. In the Eastern Province of Zambia, Chitumbuka is spoken mainly in 5 districts, namely, Lumezi, Chasefu, Lundazi and Chama, with some in Chipata.<ref name=":23">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Muchinga Province of Zambia, Chitumbuka is spoken in the districts of Isoka, Mafinga and surrounding areas.<ref name=":3">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> In Southern Tanzania, it is spoken in Mbeya, Rungwe and Njombe districts that share boundary with Northern Malawi.<ref name=":0">Kiso (2012), pp.21ff.</ref><ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref name=":3" /> In Zimbabwe, Chitumbuka is spoken to the lesser extent in Harare due to migrant labour by over 20, 000 people who migrated in early 18th Century.

Chitumbuka belongs to the same language group (Guthrie Zone N) as other Bantu languages.

Senga is a dialect of Tumbuka<ref name=":2">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> spoken in Zambia's Chama district and surrounding areas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

Speakers

In 2024, there were approximately 7.1 million native Chitumbuka speakers from all the 3 countries, excluding speakers from Zimbabwe whose data was not added. In Malawi and Zambia, there are nearly 1,600,000 people who speak it as their second language.

In 1998, The World Almanac recorded the number of Chitumbuka speakers at 2 million speakers, though other sources estimated a higher number than that. The majority of Chitumbuka speakers live in Malawi and Zambia, with half a million living in South Tanzania,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and over 20,000 in Zimbabwe.

Official and regional status

In 1947, Chitumbuka was made an official language of Malawi for 21 years along with Chewa and English. It was in 1968 when Hastings Kamuzu Banda removed the language as a result of his one-nation, one-language policy.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> The Chitumbuka language suffered a lot during the rule of President Banda.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1" /> It was removed from the school curriculum, the national radio, and the print media.<ref name=":1" /> With the advent of multi-party democracy in 1994, Chitumbuka programmes were started again on the radio.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Dialects

There are several dialects of Chitumbuka spoken in three countries. Malawi has Chikamanga, Chiphoka and Chihewe dialects that are spoken in Rumphi and Karonga Districts; Chiwenya spoken in Chitipa District and Chitumbuka spoken in Mzimba and NkhataBay Districts, including Mzuzu City. The Rumphi variant is often regarded as the most "linguistically pure" and is sometimes called "real Chitumbuka".<ref>Kamwendo (2004), p.282.</ref><ref>University of Malawi (2006), p.27.</ref><ref name=":0" />

Orthography

Two systems of writing Tumbuka are in use: the traditional spelling (used for example in the Chitumbuka version of Wikipedia and in the newspaper {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), in which words such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'people' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'year' are written with 'b' and 'ch', and the new official spelling (used for example in the Citumbuka dictionary published online by the Centre for Language Studies and in the online Bible), in which the same words are written with 'ŵ' and 'c', e.g. ŵanthu and caka. (The sound 'ŵ' is a closely rounded [w] pronounced with the tongue in the close-i position.)<ref>Atkins, Guy (1950) "Suggestions for an Amended Spelling and Word Division of Nyanja" Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 20, No. 3, p.205.</ref> There is some uncertainty over where to write 'r' and where 'l', e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Dictionary) or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Bible) 'food'. (In fact [l] and [r] are allophones of the same phoneme.) There is also hesitation between the spellings 'sk' and 'sy' (both {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('bamboo') are found in the Citumbuka dictionary).<ref>See entries {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}.</ref>

Phonology

Vowels

The same vowels {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and syllabic {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are found in Tumbuka as in the neighbouring languages.<ref>Vail (1972), p. 1.</ref>

File:Monile.ogg

Tumbuka greeting "Monile" which means "Hello".

Consonants

Tumbuka consonants are similar to those of the neighbouring languages of Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia, but with certain differences. The continuant sounds {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, which are absent or marginal in other related languages, are common in Tumbuka. Also common are the palatalised sounds {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, and {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. In Tumbuka there are no affricates such as {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, {{#invoke:IPA|main}}. The sounds {{#invoke:IPA|main}} and {{#invoke:IPA|main}} are never nasalised in Tumbuka, so that Nyanja {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('fish') = Tumbuka {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The sound {{#invoke:IPA|main}} is found only in foreign words such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('shirt') and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} ('sugar'). Tumbuka {{#invoke:IPA|main}} sometimes corresponds to {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, for example Chewa {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to be ill' = Tumbuka {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Chewa {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to eat' = Tumbuka {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. The pronunciation of "sk" and "zg" varies according to dialect.

Tumbuka consonants are frequently either palatalised (i.e. followed by /y/) or rounded (i.e. followed by /w/.) Some of them can also be preceded by a homorganic nasal (/n/, /ng'/ or /m/). The possible consonant combinations are shown in the table below:

Table of Tumbuka consonants<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 11–13.</ref><ref>Vail (1972), pp. 4–19.</ref>

		labial			dental			palatal		velar		glottal
		plain	lab.	pal.	plain	lab.	pal.	plain	lab.	plain	lab.
nasal		m Template:IPAslink	mw Template:IPAslink	my Template:IPAslink	n Template:IPAslink	nw Template:IPAslink	ny Template:IPAslink			ng' Template:IPAslink	ng'w Template:IPAslink
plosive/ affricate	unvoiced	p Template:IPAslink	pw Template:IPAslink	py Template:IPAslink	t Template:IPAslink	tw Template:IPAslink	ty Template:IPAslink	c Template:IPAslink	cw Template:IPAslink	k Template:IPAslink	kw Template:IPAslink
	voiced	b Template:IPAslink	bw Template:IPAslink	by Template:IPAslink	d Template:IPAslink	dw Template:IPAslink	dy Template:IPAslink	j Template:IPAslink	jw Template:IPAslink	g Template:IPAslink	gw Template:IPAslink
	aspirated	ph Template:IPAslink	phw Template:IPAslink	phy Template:IPAslink	th Template:IPAslink	thw Template:IPAslink	thy Template:IPAslink	ch Template:IPAslink		kh Template:IPAslink	khw Template:IPAslink
	nasalised	mb Template:IPAslink	mbw Template:IPAslink	mby Template:IPAslink	nd Template:IPAslink	ndw Template:IPAslink	(ndy)Template:Efn Template:IPAslink	nj Template:IPAslink		ng Template:IPAslink	ngw Template:IPAslink
	nasalised aspirated	mph Template:IPAslink	mphw Template:IPAslink	mphy Template:IPAslink	nth Template:IPAslink	nthw Template:IPAslink	(nthy) Template:IPAslink	nch Template:IPAslink		nkh Template:IPAslink	nkhw Template:IPAslink
fricative	unvoiced	f Template:IPAslink	fw Template:IPAslink	fy Template:IPAslink	s Template:IPAslink	sw Template:IPAslink	sk (sy) Template:IPAslink	(sh) Template:IPAslink				h Template:IPAslink
	voiced	v Template:IPAslink	vw Template:IPAslink	vy Template:IPAslink	z Template:IPAslink	zw Template:IPAslink	zg Template:IPAslink
semivowel/ liquid		ŵ Template:IPAslink	w Template:IPAslink		l/r Template:IPAslink	lw/rw Template:IPAslink	ly/ry Template:IPAslink	y Template:IPAslink		gh Template:IPAslink

Tone

Tumbuka has a tonal accent but in a very limited way, in that every word, spoken in isolation, has the same falling tone on the penultimate syllable (which also coincides with stress).<ref>Downing (2008, 2012).</ref> It is therefore not possible in Tumbuka to contrast two different words or two different tenses tonally, as it is in other Bantu languages. However, this penultimate falling tone occurs not on every word, but only on the last word of a phonological phrase; e.g. in the following sentence, only the second word has a tone, the first being toneless:<ref>Downing (2012), p.123.</ref>

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'we are cooking porridge'

A greater variety of tonal patterns is found in the ideophones (expressive words) of Tumbuka; for example Low ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'disintegrating into small pieces'), High ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'swooping low (of birds)'), High-Low ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sound of thing bursting'), and Low-High ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sudden disappearance'), etc.<ref>Moto (1999), pp.112-120.</ref>

Intonational tones are also used in Tumbuka; for example, in yes-no questions there is often a High-Low fall on the final syllable of the question:<ref>Downing (2008), p.55.</ref>

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'are you also weeding the maize?'

There does not seem to be any consistent, direct correlation between tone in Tumbuka and focus.<ref>Downing (2012), p.129.</ref>

Nouns

Noun classes

As is usual with Bantu languages, Tumbuka nouns are grouped into different noun classes according to their singular and plural prefixes. Each class of noun has its own adjective, pronoun, and verb agreements, known as 'concords'. Where the agreements disagree with the prefix, the agreements take precedence in deciding the class of noun. For example, the noun {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'possessions', despite having the prefix ka-, is placed in class 1, since one says {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'these possessions' using the class 1 demonstrative {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}. Malawians themselves (e.g. in the University of Malawi's Citumbuka dictionary) refer to the noun classes by traditional names such as "Mu-Ŵa-"; Bantu specialists, however, refer to the classes by numbers (1/2 etc.) corresponding to the noun-classes of other Bantu languages. Occasionally nouns do not correspond to the classes below, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'chief' (class 9) irregularly has a plural mafumu in class 6.

Class 1/2 (Mu-Ŵa-)

Some nouns in this class lack the prefix Mu-:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = person
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = foreigner, white man
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = donkey
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = maternal uncle
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (no pl.) = goods, possessions

Class 3/4 (Mu-Mi-)

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = head
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = fig-tree
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = life
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = heart

Class 5/6 (Li-Ma-)

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = breast
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = government, district
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = bottle
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = tribe, nation
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = eye
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (no singular) = water
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = hill
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = problem, trouble
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = hand

Class 7/8 (Ci-Vi-)

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = year
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = country, land
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = farm animal
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = drunkard
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = whip

Class 9/10 (Yi-Zi-)

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = plate
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = money
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = brick
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = chicken
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = fish

Class 11 (Lu-)

Some speakers treat words in this class as if they were in class 5/6.<ref>Shiozaki (2004).</ref>

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = side
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = fame
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = tongue

Class 12/13 (Ka-Tu-)

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = small thing
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = baby
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = bird
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (no singular) = sleep

Class 14/6 (U-Ma-)

These nouns are frequently abstract and have no plural.

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = night
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = farming
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = bridge
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} pl. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = bow

Class 15 (Ku-) Infinitive

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to buy, buying
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to steal, stealing

Classes 16, 17, 18 (Pa-, Ku-, Mu-) Locative

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = underneath
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = in front, before
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = inside

Concords

Verbs, adjectives, numbers, possessives, and pronouns in Tumbuka have to agree with the noun referred to. This is done by means of prefixes, infixes, or suffixes called 'concords' which differ according to the class of noun. Class 1 has the greatest variety of concords, differing for pronouns, subject prefix, object infix, numbers, adjectives, and possessives:<ref>Chase (2004).</ref><ref>Shiozaki (2004)</ref><ref>Vail (1971).</ref>

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = this child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = one child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = that child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = the whole child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = every child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = the child saw him
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = the small child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Khumbo's child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = my child
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = the child has seen

Other noun classes have a smaller variety of concords, as can be seen from the table below:

Table of Tumbuka concords

	noun	English	this	num	that	all	subj	object	adj	of	perf
1	lang}}	child	lang}}	yu-	lang}}	lang}}	wa-	-mu-	mu-	lang}}	wa-
2	lang}}	children	lang}}	ŵa-	lang}}	lang}}	ŵa-	-ŵa-	ŵa-	lang}}	ŵa-
3	lang}}	head	lang}}	wu-	lang}}	lang}}	wu-	-wu-	wu-	lang}}	wa-
4	lang}}	heads	lang}}	yi-	lang}}	lang}}	yi-	-yi-	yi-	lang}}	ya-
5	lang}}	eye	lang}}	li-	lang}}	lang}}	li-	-li-	li-	lang}}	la-
6	lang}}	eyes	lang}}	gha-	lang}}	lang}}	gha-	-gha-	gha-	lang}}	gha-
7	lang}}	year	lang}}	ci-	lang}}	lang}}	ci-	-ci-	ci-	lang}}	ca-
8	lang}}	years	lang}}	vi-	lang}}	lang}}	vi-	-vi-	vi-	lang}}	vya-
9	lang}}	house	lang}}	yi-	lang}}	lang}}	yi-	-yi-	yi-	lang}}	ya-
10	lang}}	houses	lang}}	zi-	lang}}	lang}}	zi-	-zi-	zi-	lang}}	za-
11	lang}}	side	lang}}	lu-	lang}}	lang}}	lu-	-lu-	lu-	lang}}	lwa-
		(or:	lang}}	li-	lang}}	lang}}	li-	-li-	li-	lang}}	la-)
12	lang}}	bird	lang}}	ka-	lang}}	lang}}	ka-	-ka-	ka-	lang}}	ka-
13	lang}}	birds	lang}}	tu-	lang}}	lang}}	tu-	-tu-	tu-	lang}}	twa-
14	lang}}	bow	lang}}	wu-	lang}}	lang}}	wu-	-wu-	wu-	lang}}	wa-
15	lang}}	buying	lang}}	ku-	lang}}	lang}}	ku-	-ku-	ku-	lang}}	kwa-
16	lang}}	underneath	lang}}	pa-	lang}}	lang}}	pa-	-pa-	pa-	lang}}	pa-
17	lang}}	in front	lang}}	ku-	lang}}	lang}}	ku-	-ku-	ku-	lang}}	kwa-
18	lang}}	inside	lang}}	mu-	lang}}	lang}}	mu-	-mu-	mu-	lang}}	mwa-

Sample phrases and text

The following is a list of phrases that can be used when one visits a region whose primary language is Tumbuka:

Tumbuka	English
Moni	Hello
Monile	hello, to a group of people
Muli makola? Mwaŵa uli?	how are you?
Muli makola? Mwaŵa uli?	How are you?, to a group of people
Nili makola	I'm okay
Tili makola	We're okay
Naonga (chomene)	Thank you (a lot)
Yewo (chomene)	Thanks (a lot)
Ndiwe njani zina lako?	What is your name?
Zina lane ndine....	My name is....
Nyengo ili uli?	What is the time?
Ningakuvwila?	Can I help you?
Uyende makola	Goodbye/go well/safe travels
Mwende makola	Goodbye/go well/safe travels (said to a group of people)
Enya/ Eh	Yes
Yayi/Chala	No
Kwali	I don't know
Mukumanya kuyowoya Chizungu?	Can you speak English?
Nayambapo kusambilila ChiTumbuka	I've just started learning Tumbuka
Mukung'anamula vichi?	What do you mean?
Chonde, ningaluta kubafa?	May I please go to the bathroom?
Nakutemwa/Nkhukutemwa	"I love you"
Phepa	Sorry
Phepani	Sorry (to agroup of people)
Banja	Family
Yowoya	Talk/speak

Verbs

Subject prefix

All verbs must have a subject prefix, which agrees with the subject noun.<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 22.</ref> For example, the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'hunter' is class 7, so if it is subject, the verb has the prefix ci-:

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'the hunter killed a lion'<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 42.</ref>

It is also possible for the subject to be a locative noun (classes 16, 17, 18), in which case the verb has a locative prefix:<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 23.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'on the mat there sat down a child'

The locative prefix ku- (class 17) is also used impersonally when discussing the weather:<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 24.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'it's cold these days'

When the subject is a personal pronoun, the subject prefixes are as follows (the pronoun itself may be omitted, but not the subject prefix):

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'I bought' (nkha- stands for ni-ka-)

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'you bought' (informal, singular)

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he, she bought'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'we bought'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'you bought' (plural or respectful)

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'they bought', 'he/she bought' (plural or respectful)

In the perfect tense, these are shortened to {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, e.g. {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'we have bought'.

In Karonga dialect, in the 3rd person singular a- is found instead of wa-, and the 3rd plural is wa- instead of ŵa-, except in the perfect tense, when wa- and ŵa- are used.<ref>McNicholl (2010), pp. 7–8.</ref>

Object-marker

To indicate the object, an infix can be added to the verb immediately before the verb root. Generally speaking, the object-marker is optional:<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 51–64.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'Pokani has bought a car' (class 9)

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'Changa carried the luggage' (class 1)

The object-marker agrees with the class of the object, as shown on the table of concords above.

The object-marker can also be a locative (classes 16, 17, or 18):<ref>Chavula (2016), p. 56.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'Kondwani has climbed on top of the house'

The locative markers for personal pronouns are as follows:<ref>Chavula (2016), pp. 53–4.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he has seen me'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he has seen you'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he has seen him/her'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he has seen us'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he has seen you' (plural or respectful)

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = 'he has seen them'

Tenses

Tenses in Tumbuka are made partly by adding infixes, and partly by suffixes. Unlike Chichewa, tones do not form any part of the distinction between one tense and another.

In the past a distinction is made between hodiernal tenses (referring to events of today) and remote tenses (referring to events of yesterday or some time ago). However, the boundary between recent and remote is not exact.<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 176.</ref>

Another distinction is made between past and perfect tenses. When a perfect tense is used it carries an implication that the resulting situation still exists at the time of speaking, for example: 'the pumpkins have spread ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) over the garden'.<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 171, quoting Vail (1972).</ref> The present perfect can also be used in verbs expressing a current situation such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'I am sitting' or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'I am pleased'. The remote perfect is used for events which happened some time ago but of which the effects still apply today, such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'the rock has fallen' or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he (has) died'.<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 171, 178.</ref>

The future tenses similarly distinguish near from remote events. Some tenses imply that the event will take place elsewhere, for example {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'I will go and visit'.<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 184, quoting Vail (1972).</ref>

Compound tenses are also found in Tumbuka, such as {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he had slept', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he had just left' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'he will have sold'.<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 172, 182, 184, quoting Vail (1972).</ref>

Some Tumbuka tenses<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 163–192.</ref>

Tense	Tense marker	Example	Translation
Present infinitive	ku-	lang}}	‘to go'
Present simple	-ku-	lang}}	‘he/she goes/is going’
Present habitual	-ku-...-anga	lang}}	‘he/she goes’ (some speakers only)
Present perfect	-a-	lang}}	‘he/she has gone’
Present perfect continuous	-a-...-anga	lang}}	‘he/she has been going'
Remote perfect	-liku-	lang}}	‘he/she has gone’
Recent past simple	-angu-	lang}}	‘he/she went’ (today)
Recent past continuous	-angu-...-anga	lang}}	‘he/she was going' (today)
Remote past simple	-ka-	lang}}	‘he/she went’
Remote past continuous	-ka-...-anga	lang}}	‘he/she was going/used to go'
Near future	...-enge	lang}}	'he will go' (now or today)
Emphatic future<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 183, quoting Vail (1972).</ref>	-ti-...-enge	lang}}	'he will certainly go'
Distal future<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 184, 185, quoting Vail (1972). For the term 'distal', see Botne (1999).</ref>	-amu-(ku)-	lang}}	‘he/she will buy’ (elsewhere)
Remote future	-zamu-(ku)-	lang}}	‘he/she will go’ (tomorrow or later)
Remote future continuous	-zamu-...-anga	lang}}	‘he/she will be going' (tomorrow or later)
Present subjunctive	-e	lang}}	‘let's go'
Distal subjunctive	-ka-...-e	lang}}	‘so that he can buy (elsewhere)'
Potential	-nga-	lang}}	'he can go'<ref>McNicholl (2010), p. 8.</ref>

Other future tenses are given by Vail (1972) and others.<ref>See Kiso (2012) pp. 182–188.</ref>

In the 1st person singular, ni-ku- and ni-ka- are shortened to nkhu- and nkha-: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'I am going', 'I go', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'I used to go'.<ref>Kiso (2012), pp. 163, 173.</ref>

Negative verbs

To make the negative of a verb in Tumbuka, the word {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} or {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is added at or near the end of the clause. It seems that {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} is preferred by younger speakers:<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 190.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

'he is not writing a letter'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

'we will not work tomorrow'

With the present perfect tense, however, a separate form exists, adding -nda- and ending in -e:<ref>Kiso (2012), p. 191.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

'yes, I have met him'

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

'no, I haven't met him'

The Ngoni influence on Tumbuka

Words of Ngoni (Zulu/Ndwandwe) origin found in Tumbuka:

All Tumbuka dialects have to some extent been affected by the Ngoni language, most especially in Mzimba District of Malawi. Ngoni is a language that originates from the Ndwandwe people who were neighbours to the Zulu clan prior to being conquered by the Zulu and being assimilated into the Zulu identity. The language the Ndwandwe spoke was thus nearly identical Zulu. Below are some examples of words found in chitumbuka that are of Zulu/Ndwandwe origin, though most of them have original Tumbuka counterpart words that can be used interchangeably at the speakers will, (excluding 'munwe/minwe' meaning 'finger/fingers' for example, that seemingly did not have an original counterpart or the original word has been lost). The word njowi is used for finger/s.

English	Tumbuka	Tumbuka-Ngoni dialect
See	Wona	Bheka
Smoke	Khweŵa	Bhema
Man	Mwanalume	Doda
Virgin	Mwali	Nthombi

An example of Tumbuka

Months in Tumbuka:

English	Tumbuka
January	Mathipa
February	Muswela
March	Nyakanyaka
April	Masika
May	Vuna
June	Zizima
July	Mphepo
August	Mpupulu
September	Lupya
October	Zimya
November	Thukila
December	Vula

An example of a folktale translated into Tumbuka and other languages of Northern Malawi is given in the Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi carried out by the Centre for Language Studies of the University of Malawi.<ref>Language Mapping Survey, p. 60-64.</ref> The Tumbuka version of the folktale goes as follows:

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(Translation)

THE TORTOISE AND THE HARE

Tortoise went to beg food from people. To carry his bag, he tied it to a long string and wore it round his neck. As he walked along, the bag was coming behind him.

As he was on his way, Hare came up behind him and said, "There it is, my bag!" Tortoise said "The bag is mine, see this string I've tied now I'm pulling it as I go." Hare refused to accept this and said "Let's go the Court, so that it can judge us." The Court examined the case and cut Tortoise's string which he'd tied the bag with. They took that bag and gave it to Hare.

Another day when Hare was walking along, Tortoise found him and said, "There it is, my tail!" Hare said, "Nonsense, this is my tail, Tortoise." Tortoise refused to accept this and said, "What I've got is mine." They went to the Court so that it could make a judgement. In that Court, the case went in Tortoise's favour. They cut off Hare's tail and gave it to Tortoise.

Some vocabulary

Helpful phrases

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Yes
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = No
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Thank you
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = We are thankful
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = I want some food !
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = could you give me some food?
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = I do not speak chiTumbuka!
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Travel well.
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = I would like water to drink.

Greetings

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Good morning. (How did you wake up?)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Fine. And you? (I woke up well. I don't know about you?)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = How are you?
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = I am fine, how are you?
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Good afternoon. (How did you spend the day?)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = Good afternoon. How are you? (I spent the day well. I don't know about you?)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = somewhat more formal than "Hi". Perhaps best translated as "Greetings".
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = We shall meet again.

People

The plural ba- (ŵa-) is often used for politeness when referring to elders:

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = boy
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = boys
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = girl
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = girls
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = young ladies
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = a woman with babies
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = mother
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = dad
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = grandmother
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = grandmother, also used when addressing old female persons
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = grandfather
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = paternal aunt
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = maternal aunt usually your mother's younger/older sister
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = maternal uncle
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = paternal uncle usually your father's younger/older brother
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = my brother/ sister (for addressing a sibling of the opposite sex)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = my young brother / sister (for addressing a sibling of the same sex)
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = my elder brother / sister (for addressing a sibling of the same sex)

Verbs

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to play
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to laugh
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to eat
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to sleep
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to walk
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to run
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to write
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to do laundry
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to bath
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to cook
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to dig / cultivate
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to plant
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to dance
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = to sing

Animals

• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = tortoise
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = hare
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = hippo
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = hyena
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = snake
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = pig
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = cow
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = dog
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = cat
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = sheep
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = lion
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = goat
• {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} = chicken

See also

• Tumbuka people
• Tumbuka mythology

Notable Tumbuka People

• Sheperd Bushiri (Christian preacher)
• Mwai Kumwenda (netball player)
• Briddget Kumwenda (netball player)
• Chakufwa Chihana ( human rights activist and politician)
• Enoch Chihana (member of parliament)

Bibliography

• Botne, Robert (1999). "Future and distal -ka-'s: Proto-Bantu or nascent form(s)?". In: Jean-Marie Hombert and Larry M. Hyman (eds.), Bantu Historical Linguistics: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. Stanford, CA: Center for the Study of Language and Information, pp. 473–515.
• Chase, Robert (2004). "A Comparison of Demonstratives in the Karonga and Henga Dialects of Tumbuka". Undergraduate paper. Amherst: Dept. of Linguistics, Univ. of Massachusetts.
• Chavula, Jean Josephine (2016). "Verbal derivation and valency in Chitumbuka". Leiden University doctoral thesis.
• Downing, Laura J. (2006). "The Prosody and Syntax of Focus in Chitumbuka". ZAS Papers in Linguistics 43, 55-79.
• Downing, Laura J. (2008). "Focus and prominence in Chichewa, Chitumbuka and Durban Zulu". ZAS Papers in Linguistics 49, 47-65.
• Downing, Laura J. (2012). "On the (Non-)congruence of Focus and Prominence in Tumbuka". Selected Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference on African Linguistics, ed. Michael R. Marlo et al., 122-133. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
• Downing, Laura J. (2017). "Tone and intonation in Chichewa and Tumbuka". In Laura J. Downing & Annie Rialland (eds) Intonation in African Tone Languages. de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, pp. 365–392.
• Downing, Laura J. (2019). "Tumbuka prosody: Between tone and stress". In: Emily Clem et al (eds). Theory and Description in African Linguistics: Selected papers from the 47th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 75-94. Also available online at: [1]
• Elmslie, Walter Angus (1923): Introductory Grammar of the Tumbuka Language. Livingstonia Mission Press.
• Kamwendo, Gregory H. (2004). Kamwendo "Your Chitumbuka is Shallow. It's not the Real Chitumbuka: Linguistic Purism Among Chitumbuka Speakers in Malawi", Nordic Journal of African Studies 13(3): 275–288.
• Kishindo, Pascal J. et Allan L. Lipenga (2006). Parlons citumbuka : langue et culture du Malawi et de la Zambie, L'Harmattan, Paris, Budapest, Kinshasa, 138 pages. Template:ISBN
• Kishindo, Pascal J. (ed), Jean J. Chavula and others (2018). {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} (Citumbuka dictionary). Centre for Language Studies, University of Malawi. Template:ISBN
• Kiso, Andrea (2012). "Tense and Aspect in Chichewa, Citumbuka, and Cisena". Ph.D. Thesis. Stockholm University.
• McNicholl, Duncan (2010). "The No-Nonsense Guide to Learning Chitumbuka: Volume 1".
• Moto, Francis (1999). "The Tonal Phonology of Bantu Ideophones". Malilime: Malawian Journal of Linguistics no.1, 100-120. (pp. 112–119 deals with tone in Chitumbuka ideophones).
• Mphande, L. (1989). "A Phonological Analysis of the Ideophone in Chitumbuka". Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Texas, Austin.
• Shiozaki, Lisa (2004). "Concordial agreement in the Karonga dialect of Tumbuka". Undergraduate paper. Amherst: Dept. of Linguistics, Univ. of Massachusetts.
• Turner, W.M. (1952). Tumbuka–Tonga–English Dictionary The Hetherwick Press, Blantyre, Nyasaland (now Malawi).
• University of Malawi Centre for Language Studies (2006). "Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi".
• Vail, Hazen Leroy (1971). "The noun classes of Tumbuka". African studies, v. 30, 1, p. 35-59.
• Vail, Hazen Leroy (1972). "Aspects of the Tumbuka Verb". Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin.

External links

• Very brief report on Tumbuka language.
• Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi. University of Malawi Centre for Language Studies, 2006.
• Language Map of Northern Malawi
• Some more chiTumbuka vocabulary.
• PanAfrican L10n page on Tumbuka
• Citumbuka monolingual dictionary