Template:Short description Template:Italic title {{#invoke:other uses|otheruses}} Template:Featured article Template:Infobox instrument
Template:Nihongo are a broad range of Japanese percussion instruments. In Japanese, the term Template:Transliteration refers to any kind of drum, but outside Japan, it is used specifically to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called Template:Nihongo3 and to the form of ensemble Template:Transliteration drumming more specifically called Template:Nihongo3. The process of constructing Template:Transliteration varies between manufacturers, and the preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on the method.
Template:Transliteration have a mythological origin in Japanese folklore, but historical records suggest that Template:Transliteration were introduced to Japan through Chinese and Korean cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE; pottery from the Haniwa period depicting Template:Transliteration drums has also been found. Some Template:Transliteration are similar to instruments originating from India. Archaeological evidence also supports the view that Template:Transliteration were present in Japan during the 6th century in the Kofun period. Their function has varied throughout history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, religious ceremony and concert performances. In modern times, Template:Transliteration have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan.
Template:Transliteration performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and later in 1961 by the Ondekoza, and Template:Transliteration was made later popular with many other groups copying the format of Ondekoza such as Kodo, Yamato, Tao, Taikoza, Fuun No Kai, Sukeroku Taiko, etc. Other performance styles, such as Template:Transliteration, have also emerged from specific communities in Japan. Template:Transliteration performance groups are active not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and Brazil. Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm, form, stick grip, clothing, and the particular instrumentation. Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped Template:Transliteration as well as smaller Template:Transliteration. Many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments. Template:TOC limit
HistoryEdit
OriginEdit
The origin of the Template:Transliteration and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the Template:Transliteration, a drum that originated in South China. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn Certain court music styles, especially Template:Transliteration and Template:Transliteration, arrived in Japan through both China and Korea.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to Template:Transliteration.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Certain percussive patterns and terminology in Template:Transliteration, an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the Template:Transliteration, also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in Template:Transliteration performance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Archaeological evidence shows that Template:Transliteration were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE,<ref name=TNM>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> during the latter part of the Kofun period, and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals.Template:Sfn This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums;Template:Sfn one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height.Template:Sfnm<ref name=Ochi>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This statue is titled "Man Beating the Template:Transliteration" and is considered the oldest evidence of Template:Transliteration performance in Japan.<ref name=Ochi />Template:Sfn Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this Template:Transliteration and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions.Template:Sfn
The Template:Transliteration, the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of Template:Transliteration. The myth tells how Amaterasu, who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess Ame-no-Uzume when others had failed. Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of sake and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of Template:Transliteration music.Template:Sfnm
Use in warfareEdit
In feudal Japan, Template:Transliteration were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn During the 16th-century Warring States period, specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing.Template:Sfn Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts. According to the war chronicle Template:Transliteration, nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy.Template:Sfn Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century Emperor Keitai offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named Template:Nihongo3.Template:Sfn The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.Template:Sfn
In traditional settingsEdit
Template:Transliteration have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration. In the kabuki play The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles, scenes in the pleasure quarters are accompanied by Template:Transliteration to create dramatic tension.Template:Sfn Noh theatre also features Template:Transliteration music,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns. The Template:Nihongo school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes.Template:Sfn Differences between these patterns include changes in tempo, accent, dynamics, pitch, and function in the theatrical performance. Patterns are also often connected together in progressions.Template:Sfn
Template:Transliteration continue to be used in Template:Transliteration, a classical music tradition typically performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in addition to local temples and shrines.Template:Sfn In Template:Transliteration, one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the Template:Transliteration.Template:Sfn
Template:Transliteration have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan.<ref name=JANM>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In Template:Transliteration, a category of music and dances stemming from Shinto practices, Template:Transliteration frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, Template:Transliteration are used for ritual dances as part of the Bon Festival.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Transliteration, along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.Template:Sfn
Template:TransliterationEdit
In addition to the instruments, the term Template:Transliteration also refers to the performance itself,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn and commonly to one style called Template:Transliteration, or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums).Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Transliteration was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He is considered a master performer and helped transform Template:Transliteration performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines.<ref name=NYT>Template:Cite news</ref> Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in Nagano, and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written Template:Transliteration music.Template:Sfn Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation,Template:Sfn Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments.Template:Sfn Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in Template:Transliteration performance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Oguchi's ensemble, Osuwa Daiko, incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances.Template:Sfn Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in Tokyo in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi,Template:Sfn and has been referred to as the first Template:Transliteration group who toured professionally.Template:Sfn Globally, Template:Transliteration performance became more visible during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event.Template:Sfn
Template:Transliteration was also developed through the leadership of Template:Nihongo, who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to Template:Transliteration playing and took them to Sado Island for trainingTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn where Den and his family had settled in 1968.Template:Sfn Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly Template:Transliteration; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called Template:Nihongo3 that required considerable strength to play well.Template:Sfn Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or Ondekoza for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In 1975, Ondekoza was the first Template:Transliteration group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the Boston Marathon while wearing their traditional uniforms.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called Kodo under the leadership of Eitetsu Hayashi.Template:Sfn Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize Template:Transliteration through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers.Template:Sfn Kodo is one of the most recognized Template:Transliteration groups both in Japan<ref name=Arita>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=Matsumoto>Template:Cite news</ref> and worldwide.Template:Sfn<ref>Template:Bulleted list</ref>
Estimates of the number of Template:Transliteration groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan,Template:Sfn but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of Template:Transliteration groups.Template:Sfn Some pieces that have emerged from early Template:Transliteration groups that continue to be performed include Yatai-bayashi from Ondekoza,Template:Sfn Template:Nihongo from Osuwa Daiko,Template:Sfn and Template:Nihongo from Kodo.Template:Sfn
CategorizationEdit
Taiko have been developed into a broad range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions. An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by Francis Taylor Piggott in 1909.Template:Sfn Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process, or the specific context in which the drum is used,Template:Sfn but some are not classified, such as the toy den-den daiko.Template:Sfn
With few exceptions, taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body, and a sealed resonating cavity.Template:Sfn The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems, such as using ropes.Template:Sfn Taiko may be either tunable or non-tunable depending on the system used.Template:Sfn
Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process. Byō-uchi-daiko are constructed with the drumhead nailed to the body.Template:Sfn Shime-daiko are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings, which are then tightened with ropes.Template:Sfn Contemporary shime-daiko are tensioned using bolts or turnbuckles systems attached to the drum body.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Tsuzumi are also rope-tensioned drums, but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin.Template:Sfn
Byō-uchi-daiko were historically made only using a single piece of wood;Template:Sfn they continue to be made in this manner, but are also constructed from staves of wood.Template:Sfn Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood, but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees.Template:Sfn The preferred wood is the Japanese zelkova or keyaki,Template:Sfn but a number of other woods, and even wine barrels, have been used to create taiko.Template:Sfn<ref name=Liu /> Byō-uchi-daiko cannot be tuned.Template:Sfn
The typical byō-uchi-daiko is the nagadō-daiko,<ref name=Shumei2>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel.Template:Sfn Nagadō-daiko are available in a variety of sizes, and their head diameter is traditionally measured in shaku (units of roughly 30 cm). Head diameters range from Template:Convert. Template:Nihongo4 are the smallest of these drums and are usually about Template:Convert in diameter.Template:Sfn The Template:Nihongo4 is a medium-sized nagadō-daiko ranging from Template:Convert,<ref name=Shumei2 /> and weighing about Template:Convert.Template:Sfn Template:Nihongo4 vary in size, and are often as large as Template:Convert in diameter.Template:Sfn Some ō-daiko are difficult to move due to their size, and therefore permanently remain inside the performance space, such as temple or shrine.<ref name=Heartbeat>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Ō-daiko means "large drum" and for a given ensemble, the term refers to their largest drum.Template:Sfn<ref name=Heartbeat /> The other type of byō-uchi-daiko is called a Template:Nihongo4 and can be any drum constructed such that the head diameter is greater than the length of the body.Template:Sfn
Shime-daiko are a set of smaller, roughly snare drum-sized instrument that are tunable.Template:Sfn The tensioning system usually consists of hemp cords or rope, but bolt or turnbuckle systems have been used as well.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Template:Nihongo4, sometimes referred to as "taiko" in the context of theater, have thinner heads than other kinds of shime-daiko.Template:Sfn The head includes a patch of deerskin placed in the center, and in performance, drum strokes are generally restricted to this area.Template:Sfn The Template:Nihongo4 is a heavier type of shime-daiko.Template:Sfn They are available in sizes 1–5, and are named according to their number: namitsuke (1), nichō-gakke (2), sanchō-gakke (3), yonchō-gakke (4), and gochō-gakke (5).Template:Sfn The namitsuke has the thinnest skins and the shortest body in terms of height; thickness and tension of skins, as well as body height, increase toward the gochō-gakke.Template:Sfn The head diameters of all shime-daiko sizes are around Template:Convert.Template:Sfn
Template:Nihongo is a type of racket-shaped Japanese drum. It is the only Japanese traditional drum without a sound box and only one skin. It is played with a drumstick while hanging it with the other hand.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
- Taiwanese taiko drummer.jpg
A middle-sized chū-daiko being played on a slanted stand
- Shime Daiko drum - Shime Taiko Trommel.jpg
Example of a shime-daiko, tensioned using rope
- Okedo Daiko drum - Okedo Taiko Trommel.jpg
Example of an okedō, tensioned using rope
- 162 Museu de la Música, tsuridaiko, tambor japonès.jpg
A tsuri-daiko on display at the Museu de la Música de Barcelona
- Kotsuzumi (Small Hourglass Drum) with Peonies LACMA M.89.134.1.jpg
A 17th-century ko-tsuzumi
- Gifujyou5851.JPG
An uchiwa-daiko.
| Gagakki | Noh | Kabuki |
|---|---|---|
| dadaiko | ō-tsuzumi | ko-tsuzumi |
| tsuri-daiko | ko-tsuzumi | ō-tsuzumi |
| san-no-tsuzumi | nagauta shime-daiko | nagauta shime-daiko |
| kakko | ō-daiko |
Okedō-daiko or simply okedō, are a type of shime-daiko that are stave-constructed using narrower strips of wood,Template:Sfn<ref name=JANM2>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> have a tube-shaped frame. Like other shime-daiko, drum heads are attached by metal hoops and fastened by rope or cords.<ref name=Shumei2 />Template:Sfn Okedō can be played using the same drumsticks (called bachi) as shime-daiko, but can also be hand-played.Template:Sfn Okedō come in short- and long-bodied types.<ref name=Shumei2 />
Tsuzumi are a class of hourglass-shaped drums. The drum body is shaped on a spool and the inner body carved by hand.Template:Sfn Their skins can be made from cowhide, horsehide, or deerskin.Template:Sfn While the ō-tsuzumi skins are made from cowhide, ko-tsuzumi are made from horsehide. While some classify tsuzumi as a type of taiko,Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn others have described them as a drum entirely separate from taiko.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Taiko can also be categorized by the context in which they are used. The miya-daiko, for instance, is constructed in the same manner as other byō-uchi-daiko, but is distinguished by an ornamental stand and is used for ceremonial purposes at Buddhist temples.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The Template:Nihongo4 (a ko-daiko) and Template:Nihongo4 (a nagadō-daiko with a cigar-shaped body) are used in sumo and festivals respectively.Template:Sfn
_A_set_of_five_prints_for_the_Hisakataya_poetry_c..._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg){kind=link}
Several drums, categorized as gagakki, are used in the Japanese theatrical form, gagaku.Template:Sfn The lead instrument of the ensemble is the kakko,Template:Sfn which is a smaller shime-daiko with heads made of deerskin, and is placed horizontally on a stand during performance.Template:Sfn A tsuzumi, called the san-no-tsuzumi is another small drum in gagaku that is placed horizontally and struck with a thin stick.Template:Sfn Template:Nihongo4 are the largest drums of the ensemble,Template:Sfn and have heads that are about Template:Convert in diameter. During performance, the drum is placed on a tall pedestals and surrounded by a rim decoratively painted with flames and adorned with mystical figures such as wyverns.Template:Sfn Dadaiko are played while standing,Template:Sfn and are usually only played on the downbeat of the music.Template:Sfn The Template:Nihongo4 is a smaller drum that produces a lower sound, its head measuring about Template:Convert in diameter.Template:Sfn It is used in ensembles that accompany bugaku, a traditional dance performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace and in religious contexts.Template:Sfn Tsuri-daiko are suspended on a small stand, and are played sitting down.Template:Sfn Tsuri-daiko performers typically use shorter mallets covered in leather knobs instead of bachi.Template:Sfn They can be played simultaneously by two performers; while one performer plays on the head, another performer uses bachi on the body of the drum.Template:Sfn
The larger ō-tsuzumi and smaller ko-tsuzumi are used in the opening and dances of Noh theater.Template:Sfn Both drums are struck using the fingers; players can also adjust pitch by manually applying pressure to the ropes on the drum.Template:Sfn The color of the cords of these drums also indicates the skill of the musician: Orange and red for amateur players, light blue for performers with expertise, and lilac for masters of the instrument.Template:Sfn Nagauta-shime daiko or uta daiko are also featured in Noh performance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Many taiko in Noh are also featured in kabuki performance and are used in a similar manner.Template:Sfn In addition to the ō-tsuzumi, ko-tsuzumi, and nagauta-shime daiko,Template:Sfn Kabuki performances make use of the larger ō-daiko offstage to help set the atmosphere for different scenes.Template:Sfn
ConstructionEdit
ProcessEdit
Taiko construction has several stages, including making and shaping of the drum body (or shell), preparing the drum skin, and tuning the skin to the drumhead. Variations in the construction process often occur in the latter two parts of this process.Template:Sfn Historically, byō-uchi-daiko were crafted from trunks of the Japanese zelkova tree that were dried out over years, using techniques to prevent splitting. A master carpenter then carved out the rough shape of the drum body with a chisel; the texture of the wood after carving softened the tone of the drum.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In contemporary times, taiko are carved out on a large lathe using wood stavesTemplate:Sfn or logs that can be shaped to fit drum bodies of various sizes.Template:Sfn Drumheads can be left to air-dry over a period of years,Template:Sfn but some companies use large, smoke-filled warehouses to hasten the drying process.Template:Sfn After drying is complete, the inside of the drum is worked with a deep-grooved chisel and sanded.Template:Sfn Lastly, handles are placed onto the drum. These are used to carry smaller drums and they serve an ornamental purpose for larger drums.Template:Sfn
The skins or heads of taiko are generally made from cowhide from Holstein cows aged about three or four years. Skins also come from horses, and bull skin is preferred for larger drums.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Thinner skins are preferred for smaller taiko, and thicker skins are used for larger ones.Template:Sfn On some drumheads, a patch of deer skin placed in the center serves as the target for many strokes during performance.Template:Sfn Before fitting it to the drum body the hair is removed from the hide by soaking it in a river or stream for about a month; winter months are preferred as colder temperatures better facilitate hair removal.Template:Sfn To stretch the skin over the drum properly, one process requires the body to be held on a platform with several hydraulic jacks underneath it. The edges of the cowhide are secured to an apparatus below the jacks, and the jacks stretch the skin incrementally to precisely apply tension across the drumhead.Template:Sfn Other forms of stretching use rope or cords with wooden dowels or an iron wheel to create appropriate tension.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Small tension adjustments can be made during this process using small pieces of bamboo that twist around the ropes.Template:Sfn Particularly large drumheads are sometimes stretched by having several workers, clad in stockings, hop rhythmically atop it, forming a circle along the edge. After the skin has dried, tacks, called byō, are added to the appropriate drums to secure it; chū-daiko require about 300 of them for each side.Template:Sfn After the body and skin have been finished, excess hide is cut off and the drum can be stained as needed.Template:Sfn
Drum makersEdit
Several companies specialize in the production of taiko. One such company that created drums exclusively for the Emperor of Japan, Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten in Tokyo, has been making taiko since 1861.Template:Sfn The Asano Taiko Corporation is another major taiko-producing organization, and has been producing taiko for over 400 years.Template:Sfn<ref name=Dretzka>Template:Cite news</ref> The family-owned business started in Mattō, Ishikawa, and, aside from military equipment, made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the Meiji period. Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village,Template:Sfn and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year.<ref name=AsanoCorp>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> As of 2012, there is approximately one major taiko production company in each prefecture of Japan, with some regions having several companies.Template:Sfn Of the manufacturers in Naniwa, Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there.Template:Sfn Umetsu Daiko, a company that operates in Hakata, has been producing taiko since 1821.Template:Sfn
PerformanceEdit
Taiko performance styles vary widely across groups in terms of the number of performers, repertoire, instrument choices, and stage techniques.Template:Sfn Nevertheless, a number of early groups have had broad influence on the tradition. For instance, many pieces developed by Ondekoza and Kodo are considered standard in many taiko groups.Template:Sfn
FormEdit
Kata is the posture and movement associated with taiko performance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The notion is similar to that of kata in martial arts: for example, both traditions include the idea that the hara is the center of being.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Author Shawn Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance.Template:Sfn For this reason, many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players.Template:Sfn An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing and can be accomplished by keeping a wide, low stance with the legs, with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed.Template:Sfn Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance.Template:Sfn
Some groups in Japan, particularly those active in Tokyo, also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited iki aesthetic.Template:Sfn In taiko, it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the Edo period (1603–1868).Template:Sfn
The sticks for playing taiko are called bachi, and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as white oak, bamboo, and Japanese magnolia.Template:Sfn Bachi are also held in a number of different styles.Template:Sfn In kumi-daiko, it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V-shape of the index finger and thumb, which points to the player.Template:Sfn There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms, such as the shime grip, which is similar to a matched grip: the bachi are gripped at the back end, and the fulcrum rests between the performer's index finger and thumb, while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick.<ref name=ModernP>Template:Cite journal</ref>
Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on Zen Buddhism. For instance, among other concepts, the San Francisco Taiko Dojo is guided by Template:Nihongo4 emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony.Template:Sfn The way the bachi are held can also be significant; for some groups, bachi represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky.Template:Sfn Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism.Template:Sfn
InstrumentationEdit
Kumi-daiko groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role. Of the different kinds of taiko, the most common in groups is the nagadō-daiko.Template:Sfn Chū-daiko are common in taiko groupsTemplate:Sfn and represent the main rhythm of the group, whereas shime-daiko set and change tempo.Template:Sfn A shime-daiko often plays the Jiuchi, a base rhythm holding together the ensemble. Ō-daiko provide a steady, underlying pulseTemplate:Sfn and serve as a counter-rhythm to the other parts.Template:Sfn It is common for performances to begin with a single stroke roll called an Template:Nihongo4.Template:Sfn The player starts slowly, leaving considerable space between strikes, gradually shortening the interval between hits, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits.Template:Sfn Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance, such as in Noh theater.Template:Sfn
Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble; other Japanese instruments are also used. Other kinds of percussion instruments include the Template:Nihongo4, a hand-sized gong played with a small mallet.Template:Sfn In kabuki, the shamisen, a plucked string instrument, often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance.Template:Sfn Kumi-daiko performances can also feature woodwinds such as the shakuhachiTemplate:Sfn and the shinobue.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
Voiced calls or shouts called kakegoe and kiai are also common in taiko performance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo.Template:Sfn In contrast, the philosophical concept of ma, or the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast.Template:Sfn
ClothingEdit
There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance. Common in many kumi-daiko groups is the use of the happi, a decorative, thin-fabric coat, and traditional headbands called hachimaki.Template:Sfn Tabi, Template:Nihongo4, and Template:Nihongo4 are also typical.Template:Sfn During his time with the group Ondekoza, Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a fundoshi be worn when performing for French fashion designer Pierre Cardin, who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975.<ref name=UofC>Template:Cite journal</ref> The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances.Template:Sfn
EducationEdit
Taiko performance is generally taught orally and through demonstration.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Historically, general patterns for taiko were written down, such as in the 1512 encyclopedia called the Taigensho,Template:Sfn but written scores for taiko pieces are generally unavailable. One reason for the adherence to an oral tradition is that, from group to group, the rhythmic patterns in a given piece are often performed differently.Template:Sfn Furthermore, ethnomusicologist William P. Malm observed that Japanese players within a group could not usefully predict one another using written notation, and instead did so through listening.Template:Sfn In Japan, printed parts are not used during lessons.Template:Sfn
Orally, patterns of onomatopoeia called kuchi shōga are taught from teacher to student that convey the rhythm and timbre of drum strikes for a particular piece.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn For example, Template:Nihongo4 represents a single strike to the center of the drum,Template:Sfn where as Template:Nihongo4 represents two successive strikes, first by the right and then the left, and lasts the same amount of time as one don strike.Template:Sfn Some taiko pieces, such as Yatai-bayashi, include patterns that are difficult to represent in Western musical notation.Template:Sfn The exact words used can also differ from region to region.Template:Sfn
More recently, Japanese publications have emerged in an attempt to standardize taiko performance. The Nippon Taiko Foundation was formed in 1979; its primary goals were to foster good relations among taiko groups in Japan and to both publicize and teach how to perform taiko.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Daihachi Oguchi, the leader of the Foundation, wrote Japan Taiko with other teachers in 1994 out of concern that correct form in performance would degrade over time.Template:Sfn The instructional publication described the different drums used in kumi-daiko performance, methods of gripping, correct form, and suggestions on instrumentation. The book also contains practice exercises and transcribed pieces from Oguchi's group, Osuwa Daiko. While there were similar textbooks published before 1994, this publication had much more visibility due to the Foundation's scope.Template:Sfn
The system of fundamentals Japan Taiko put forward was not widely adopted because taiko performance varied substantially across Japan. An updated 2001 publication from the Foundation, called the Template:Nihongo4, describes regional variations that depart from the main techniques taught in the textbook. The creators of the text maintained that mastering a set of prescribed basics should be compatible with learning local traditions.Template:Sfn
Regional stylesEdit
Aside from kumi-daiko performance, a number of folk traditions that use taiko have been recognized in different regions in Japan. Some of these include Template:Nihongo4 from Sado Island, Template:Interlanguage link multi from the town of Kokura, and Template:Interlanguage link multi from Iwate Prefecture.Template:Sfn
EisaEdit
{{#invoke:Labelled list hatnote|labelledList|Main article|Main articles|Main page|Main pages}} A variety of folk dances originating from Okinawa, known collectively as eisa, often make use of the taiko.Template:Sfn Some performers use drums while dancing, and generally speaking, perform in one of two styles:Template:Sfn groups on the Yokatsu Peninsula and on Hamahiga Island use small, single-sided drums called Template:Nihongo4 whereas groups near the city of Okinawa generally use shime-daiko.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Use of shime-daiko over pāranku has spread throughout the island, and is considered the dominant style.Template:Sfn Small nagadō-daiko, referred to as ō-daiko within the tradition, are also usedTemplate:Sfn and are worn in front of the performer.Template:Sfn These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in São Paulo, Hawaii, and large cities on the Japanese mainland.Template:Sfn
Hachijō-daikoEdit
Template:Nihongo4 is a taiko tradition originating on the island of Hachijō-jima.Template:Sfn Two styles of Hachijō-daiko emerged and have been popularized among residents: an older tradition based on a historical account, and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders.Template:Sfn
The Hachijō-daiko tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named Kakuso Kizan. He mentioned some of its unique features, such as "a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around", and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing.Template:Sfn Illustrations from Kizan's journal show features of Hachijō-daiko. These illustrations also featured women performing, which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men. Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one.Template:Sfn
The first style of Hachijō-daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan. This style is called Kumaoji-daiko, named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji, a central performer of the style.Template:Sfn Kumaoji-daiko has two players on a single drum, one of whom, called the Template:Nihongo4, provides the underlying beat.Template:Sfn The other player, called the Template:Nihongo4, builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn While there are specific types of underlying rhythms, the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat.Template:Sfn Kumaoji-daiko also features an unusual positioning for taiko: the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes,Template:Sfn and historically, sometimes drums were suspended from trees.Template:Sfn
The contemporary style of Hachijō-daiko is called Template:Nihongo4, which differs from Kumaoji-daiko in multiple ways. For instance, while the lead and accompanying roles are still present, shin-daiko performances use larger drums exclusively on stands.Template:Sfn Shin-daiko emphasizes a more powerful sound, and consequently, performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood.Template:Sfn Looser clothing is worn by shin-daiko performers compared to kimono worn by Kumaoji-daiko performers; the looser clothing in shin-daiko allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms.Template:Sfn Rhythms used for the accompanying shita-byōshi role can also differ. One type of rhythm, called yūkichi, consists of the following:
This rhythm is found in both styles, but is always played faster in shin-daiko.Template:Sfn Another type of rhythm, called honbadaki, is unique to shin-daiko and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese.Template:Sfn
Miyake-daikoEdit
Template:Nihongo4 is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo, and is formally known as Template:Nihongo4.Template:Sfn The word miyake comes from Miyake-jima, part of the Izu Islands, and the word Kamitsuki refers to the village where the tradition came from. Miyake-style taiko came out of performances for Template:Nihongo4— a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity Gozu Tennō.Template:Sfn In this festival, players perform on taiko while portable shrines are carried around town.<ref name=Miyake>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The style itself is characterized in a number of ways. A nagadō-daiko is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers, one on each side; instead of sitting, performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground, almost to the point of kneeling.<ref name=Miyake />Template:Sfn
Outside JapanEdit
AustraliaEdit
Taiko groups in Australia began forming in the 1990s.Template:Sfn The first group, called Ataru Taru Taiko, was formed in 1995 by Paulene Thomas, Harold Gent, and Kaomori Kamei.Template:Sfn TaikOz was later formed by percussionist Ian Cleworth and Riley Lee, a former Ondekoza member, and has been performing in Australia since 1997.Template:Sfn They are known for their work in generating interest in performing taiko among Australian audiences, such as by developing a complete education program with both formal and informal classes,Template:Sfn and have a strong fan base.Template:Sfn Cleworth and other members of the group have developed several original pieces.Template:Sfn
BrazilEdit
The introduction of kumi-daiko performance in Brazil can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s in São Paulo.Template:Sfn Tangue Setsuko founded an eponymous taiko dojo and was Brazil's first taiko group;Template:Sfn Setsuo Kinoshita later formed the group Wadaiko Sho.Template:Sfn Brazilian groups have combined native and African drumming techniques with taiko performance. One such piece developed by Kinoshita is called Taiko de Samba, which emphasizes both Brazilian and Japanese aesthetics in percussion traditions.Template:Sfn Taiko was also popularized in Brazil from 2002 through the work of Yukihisa Oda, a Japanese native who visited Brazil several times through the Japan International Cooperation Agency.<ref name=Horikawa>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
The Brazilian Association of Taiko (ABT) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10–15% of players are non-Japanese; Izumo Honda, coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo, estimated that about 60% of all taiko performers in Brazil are women.<ref name=Horikawa />
North AmericaEdit
Taiko emerged in the United States in the late 1960s. The first group, San Francisco Taiko Dojo, was formed in 1968 by Seiichi Tanaka, a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to the US.<ref name="NEA-Tanaka">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Sfn A year later, a few members of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called Kinnara Taiko.Template:Sfn San Jose Taiko later formed in 1973 in Japantown, San Jose, under Roy and PJ Hirabayashi.<ref name=SanJose>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Sfn Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s.Template:Sfn This included formation of Denver Taiko in 1976,Template:Sfn and Soh Daiko in New York City in 1979.<ref name=Douglas>Template:Cite news</ref><ref name=Tam>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels.Template:Sfn
Japanese-Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko, and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group.<ref name="VTS">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>Template:Sfn Its early membership was predominantly female.Template:Sfn Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger, third-generation Japanese Canadians to explore their roots, redevelop a sense of ethnic community, and expand taiko into other musical traditions.Template:Sfn
There are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada, as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country. Unofficial estimates have been made. In 1989, there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada, seven of which were in California.<ref name=Tagashira>Template:Cite news</ref> One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001, many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo;<ref name=Liu>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn
The Cirque du Soleil shows Mystère in Las Vegas<ref name=Przybys>Template:Cite news</ref> and Dralion have featured taiko performance.<ref name=Rainey>Template:Cite news</ref>Template:Sfn Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005 Mitsubishi Eclipse ad campaign,<ref name=TProject>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> and in events such as the 2009 Academy Awards and 2011 Grammy Awards.<ref name=Skidmore>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
From 2005 to 2006, the Japanese American National Museum held an exhibition called Big Drum: Taiko in the United States.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States, such as the formation of performance groups, their construction using available materials, and social movements. Visitors were able to play smaller drums.Template:Sfn
North America hosts the North American Taiko Conference (NATC) which has been ongoing since its inaugural conference in Los Angeles in 1997.Template:Sfn In 2013, the Taiko Community Alliance (TCA) formed as virtual nonprofit 501(c)3 organization with a mission to empower the people and advance the art of taiko.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Taiko Community Alliance has been responsible for helping organize the NATC conferences to help further its mission of educating and raising awareness of taiko through the taiko community.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
ItalyEdit
The first group, called Quelli del Taiko, was formed in 2000 by Pietro Notarnicola. They played in World Premiere - 2017 - "On Western Terror 8" - Concerto for Taiko Ensemble and Orchestra of the Italian composed Luigi Morleo
United KingdomEdit
Kagemusha Taiko based in the south-west were formed in 1999 by Jonathan Kirby and perform original pieces of their own creation. They are known for their work in schools and have performed in several UK venues as well as the USA and Japan.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Related cultural and social movementsEdit
Certain peoples have used taiko to advance social or cultural movements, both within Japan and elsewhere in the world.
Gender conventionsEdit
Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men.<ref>Template:Bulleted list</ref>Template:Sfn Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions. Those who developed ensemble-style taiko in Japan were men,Template:Sfn and through the influence of Ondekoza, the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class,Template:Sfn particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film Rickshaw Man.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for "spectacular bodily performance"Template:Sfn where women's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing.Template:Sfn
Before the 1980s, it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments, including taiko, as their participation had been systematically restricted; an exception was the San Francisco Taiko Dojo under the guidance of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka, who was the first to admit women to the art form.Template:Sfn In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo, women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances.Template:Sfn Thereafter, female participation in kumi-daiko started to rise dramatically, and by the 1990s, women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men.Template:Sfn While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial, some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male-dominated profession.Template:Sfn For instance, a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group's apprentice program that women were permitted to play, but could only play "as women".Template:Sfn Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles, such as what pieces they were allowed to perform, or in physical terms based on a male standard.Template:Sfn
Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet,Template:Sfn subservient, or a femme fatale.<ref name=Chan>Template:Cite news</ref> Through performance, some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko, but how women are perceived more generally.<ref name="Chan" />Template:Sfn
BurakuminEdit
Template:See also Those involved in the construction of taiko are usually considered part of the burakumin, a marginalized minority class in Japanese society, particularly those working with leather or animal skins.Template:Sfn Prejudice against this class dates back to the Tokugawa period in terms of legal discrimination and treatment as social outcasts.Template:Sfn Although official discrimination ended with the Tokugawa era, the burakumin have continued to face social discrimination, such as scrutiny by employers or in marriage arrangements.<ref name=Priestly>Template:Cite news</ref> Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class.Template:Sfn
The Template:Nihongo4, representing the contributions of burakumin, is found in Naniwa Ward in Osaka, home to a large proportion of burakumin.Template:Sfn Among other features, the road contains taiko-shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking, and their influence on national culture.Template:Sfn<ref name="Priestly" /> The road ends at the Osaka Human Rights Museum, which exhibits the history of systematic discrimination against the burakumin.<ref name=Priestly /> The road and museum were developed in part due an advocacy campaign led by the Buraku Liberation League and a taiko group of younger performers called Template:Nihongo4.Template:Sfn
North American sanseiEdit
Taiko performance was an important part of cultural development by third-generation Japanese residents in North America, who are called sansei.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn During World War II, second-generation Japanese residents, called nisei faced internment in the United States and in Canada on the basis of their race.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn During and after the war, Japanese residents were discouraged from activities such as speaking Japanese or forming ethnic communities.Template:Sfn Subsequently, sansei could not engage in Japanese culture and instead were raised to assimilate into more normative activities.Template:Sfn There were also prevailing stereotypes of Japanese people, which sansei sought to escape or subvert.Template:Sfn During the 1960s in the United States, the civil rights movement influenced sansei to reexamine their heritage by engaging in Japanese culture in their communities; one such approach was through taiko performance.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Groups such as San Jose Taiko were organized to fulfill a need for solidarity and to have a medium to express their experiences as Japanese-Americans.Template:Sfn Later generations have adopted taiko in programs or workshops established by sansei; social scientist Hideyo Konagaya remarks that this attraction to taiko among other Japanese art forms may be due to its accessibility and energetic nature.Template:Sfn Konagaya has also argued that the resurgence of taiko in the United States and Japan are differently motivated: in Japan, performance was meant to represent the need to recapture sacred traditions, while in the United States it was meant to be an explicit representation of masculinity and power in Japanese-American men.Template:Sfn
Notable performers and groupsEdit
A number of performers and groups, including several early leaders, have been recognized for their contributions to taiko performance. Daihachi Oguchi was best known for developing kumi-daiko performance. Oguchi founded the first kumi-daiko group called Osuwa Daiko in 1951, and facilitated the popularization of taiko performance groups in Japan.Template:Sfn
Seidō Kobayashi is the leader of the Tokyo-based taiko group Oedo Sukeroku Taiko as of December 2014.Template:Sfn<ref name=OST>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Kobayashi founded the group in 1959 and was the first group to tour professionally.Template:Sfn Kobayashi is considered a master performer of taiko.<ref name=Electronic>Template:Cite journal</ref> He is also known for asserting intellectual control of the group's performance style, which has influenced performance for many groups, particularly in North America.Template:Sfn
In 1968, Seiichi Tanaka founded the San Francisco Taiko Dojo and is regarded as the Grandfather of Taiko and primary developer of taiko performance in the United States.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was a recipient of a 2001 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts<ref name=NEA-Tanaka /> and since 2013 is the only taiko professional presented with the Order of the Rising Sun 5th Order: Gold and Silver Rays by Emperor Akihito of Japan, in recognition of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka's contributions to the fostering of US-Japan relations as well as the promotion of Japanese cultural understanding in the United States.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
In 1969, Template:Nihongo4 founded Ondekoza, a group well known for making taiko performance internationally visible and for its artistic contributions to the tradition.Template:Sfn Den was also known for developing a communal living and training facility for Ondekoza on Sado Island in Japan, which had a reputation for its intensity and broad education programs in folklore and music.Template:Sfn
Performers and groups beyond the early practitioners have also been noted. Eitetsu Hayashi is best known for his solo performance work.<ref name=Katara>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> When he was 19, Hayashi joined Ondekoza, a group later expanded and re-founded as Kodo, one of the best known and most influential taiko performance groups in the world.<ref>Template:Cite journal</ref> Hayashi soon left the group to begin a solo career<ref name=Katara /> and has performed in venues such as Carnegie Hall in 1984, the first featured taiko performer there.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was awarded the 47th Education Minister's Art Encouragement Prize, a national award, in 1997 as well as the 8th Award for the Promotion of Traditional Japanese Culture from the Japan Arts Foundation in 2001.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
GlossaryEdit
| Romanized Japanese | IPA Pronunciation | Kanji | DefinitionTemplate:Sfn |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bachi | Template:IPAc-ja | 撥 | Various drumsticks used for taiko performance |
| Byō-uchi-daiko | Template:IPAc-ja | Template:Nowrap | Taiko where the skin is tacked onto the head |
| Gagakki | Template:IPAc-ja | 雅楽器 | Instruments used in the theatrical tradition called gagaku |
| Kumi-daiko | Template:IPAc-ja | 組太鼓 | Type of performance involving multiple players and different types of taiko |
| Nagadō-daiko | Template:IPAc-ja | 長胴太鼓 | Subcategory of byō-uchi-daiko that have a longer, barrel-shaped body |
| Miya-daiko | Template:IPAc-ja | 宮太鼓 | Same as Nagado but only for sacred use at temples |
| Okedō-daiko | Template:IPAc-ja | 桶胴太鼓 | Taiko with bucket-like frames, and tensioned using ropes or bolts |
| Shime-daiko | Template:IPAc-ja | 締め太鼓 | Small, high-pitched taiko where the skin is pulled across the head using rope or through bolts |
| Tsuzumi | Template:IPAc-ja | 鼓 | Hourglass-shaped drums that are rope-tensioned and played with fingers |
See alsoEdit
- Kuchi shōga, a spoken rhythmic system for taiko and other Japanese instruments.
- Music of Japan
- Taiko: Drum Master and Taiko no Tatsujin, rhythm video games involving taiko performance.
ReferencesEdit
NotesEdit
CitationsEdit
BibliographyEdit
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External linksEdit
Template:Sister project Template:Sister project
- The Nippon Taiko Foundation, part of the Agency for Cultural Affairs
Template:Traditional Japanese musical instruments Template:Authority control