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Walser German

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Walser German (Template:Langx) and Walliser German ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, locally {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) are a group of Highest Alemannic dialects spoken in parts of Switzerland (Valais, Ticino, Grisons), Italy (Piedmont, Aosta Valley), Liechtenstein (Triesenberg, Planken), and Austria (Vorarlberg).<ref name=":0">Template:Cite journal</ref>

Usage of the terms Walser and Walliser has come to reflect a difference of geography, rather than language. The term Walser refers to those speakers whose ancestors migrated into other Alpine valleys in medieval times, whereas Walliser refers only to a speaker from Upper Valais – that is, the upper Rhone valley. In a series of migrations during the Late Middle Ages, people migrated out of the Upper Valais, across the higher valleys of the Alps.

HistoryEdit

Template:Further The Alemannic immigration to the Rhone valley started in the 8th century. There were presumably two different immigration routes, from what is now the Bernese Oberland, that led to two main groups of Walliser dialects. In the 12th or 13th century, the Walliser began to settle other parts of the Alps.<ref name=":1">Template:Cite book</ref> These new settlements are known as Walser migration. In many of these settlements, people still speak Walser.

Because the people who speak Walser German live in the isolated valleys of the high mountains, Walser German has preserved certain archaisms retained from Old High German which were lost in other variants of German.<ref name=":1" /> The dialect of the Lötschental, for instance, preserved three distinct classes of weak verbs until the beginning of the 20th century.Template:Clarify

Walser German dialects are considered endangered, and language shift to the majority language (French, Italian, Standard German) has taken place in the course of the later 20th century.<ref name=":0" />

ClassificationEdit

Template:Further Walser German is part of the Highest Alemannic group, most closely related to dialects spoken in the Bernese Oberland and in Central Switzerland (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Glarus).

There is limited mutual intelligibility with High Alemannic forms of Swiss German (whose speakers are called {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} "outer Swiss" by the Walliser), and barely any mutual intelligibility with Standard German.

Usage in ItalyEdit

In Italy, Walser German is almost never spoken between children of Walser people and is rarely spoken by their parents and most commonly by the grandparents. Often, older people will speak to younger people in Walser German, with the younger people responding in Italian. Walser German is most commonly but not exclusively used in private and familial settings when no non-speakers are present.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref>

Distribution and dialectsEdit

The total number of speakers in the world estimated at 22,000 speakers (as of 2004), of whom about 10,000 are in Switzerland.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Because the dialect group is quite spread out, there is rarely any contact between the dialects. Therefore, the dialects that compose Walser German are very different from each other as well.<ref name=":0" /> Specific Walser dialects can be traced to eastern or western dialects of the Upper Valais. Conservative Walser dialects are more similar to the respective groups of Wallis dialects than to neighboring Walser dialects.

PhonologyEdit

Because the dialects of Walser German are different from each other, it is difficult to make generalizations about the language that apply to all the dialects. This section will be about the Walser German dialect of Formazza, or Pomattertitsch. Pomattertitsch is part of the Highest Alemannic German ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) dialect group, which is made up of dialects that share similar features. The Highest Alemannic German group contains German dialects of Valais; Walser German dialects in Italy and Ticino; and eastern Walser German dialects in Grisons, Vorarlberg, and Liechtenstein. The first feature that is shared by this group is the palatalization of Middle High German (MHG) -s- to -sch-. This is very typical of Walser German dialects in general. For Pomattertitsch, however, this does not apply to every word that contains -s-: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'son', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'sun', and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'to be'. The second feature is a change from -nk- to -ch- or -h-: German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to Pomattertitsch {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'think', German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to Pomattertitsch {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'drink'. The final feature is the lack of diphthongs where they are present in German words: German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to Pomattertitsch {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'build', German {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} to Pomattertitsch {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'snow'.<ref name=":1" />

MorphologyEdit

Again, this section will be about the Walser German dialect Pomattertitsch.

NounsEdit

Pomattertitsch marks number (singular and plural) and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) on nouns, like most dialects of German. It also marks case (nominative/accusative, genitive, dative) on nouns, although it has been reduced over time. It also distinguishes between strong and weak nouns.

Table 1 Nouns:<ref name=":1" />

Masc. Strong Masc. Weak Neuter Fem. Strong Fem. Weak
Nom./Acc. sg. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Gen. sg. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. sg. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Nom./Acc. pl. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Gen. pl. lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) lang}} lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) lang}} ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) lang}}
Dat. pl. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}

Pomattertitsch has definite (English 'the') and indefinite (English 'a') articles that agree in case, number, and gender with the noun:

Table 2 Definite Articles:<ref name=":1" />

Masc. Neuter Fem. Plural
Nom. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Gen. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}

Table 3 Indefinite Articles:<ref name=":1" />

Masc. Neuter Fem.
Nom. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Gen. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}

Adjectives also agree in number, and gender with the noun it is modifying in Pomattertitsch. For adjectives in the attributive position, there is also agreement in strong versus weak nouns, and in case.

Table 4 Strong Attributive 'tired':<ref name=":1" />

Masc. Neuter Fem.
Singular Nom./Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Plural Nom./Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}

Table 5 Weak Attributive 'tired':<ref name=":1" />

Masc. Neuter Fem.
Singular Nom./Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Plural Nom./Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}

Table 6 Predicative 'tired':<ref name=":1" />

Masc. Neuter Fem.
Singular lang}} lang}} lang}}
Plural lang}} lang}} lang}}

In Pomattertitsch, there is a distinction between impersonal and personal pronouns. The impersonal pronoun is {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, which is third person singular. The personal pronouns agree in number and case, with third person agreeing in gender as well for singular pronouns only.

Table 7 Personal Pronouns:<ref name=":1" />

First Person Second Person Third Person
Singular Nom. lang}} lang}} lang}}

Neuter: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Fem: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}

Neuter: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Fem: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}

Neuter: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Fem: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Plural Nom. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Acc. lang}} lang}} lang}}
Dat. lang}} lang}} lang}}

VerbsEdit

The verbs in Pomattertitsch can be categorized into one of four classes depending on their past participle and infinitive endings:<ref name=":1" />

  1. Strong verbs: infinitive ending in -ä, past participle ending in -ä. Examples: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'close', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'throw', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'milk'.
  2. Weak verbs, Old High German -jan, -en: infinitive ending in -ä, past participle ending in -t. Examples: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'speak', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'live'.
  3. Weak verbs, Old High German -on: infinitive ending in -u, past participle ending in -(u)t. Examples: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'make', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'listen', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'paint'.
  4. Weak verbs derived from Italian: infinitive ending in -ire, past participle ending in -irt. Examples: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'think', {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'study'.

The two classes that are most productive are three and four. The third class is most productive in deriving verbs from nouns, and the fourth class is most productive in deriving loan-words from Italian.<ref name=":1" />

Table 8 Verb Conjugations in Present Indicative of 'Normal Verbs':<ref name=":1" />

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
lang}} 'I' lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you' lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'he, it, she' lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'we' lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you all' lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'they' lang}} lang}} lang}}

Table 9 Verb Conjugations in Present Indicative of 'Special Verbs':<ref name=":1" />

'to be' 'to do' 'to go' 'to know' 'can' 'must'
lang}} 'I' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'he, it, she' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'we' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you all' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'they' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}

In Pomattertitsch, a 'dummy' auxiliary {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'do' followed by the infinitive form of a verb is common for the present indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. This insertion has the same meaning as if the verb was to be conjugated normally: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'I do speak/I speak'.<ref name=":1" />

There is not a preterite form in Pomattertitsch. Instead, past tense is expressed using the present perfect, which is formed with auxiliaries 'to be' and 'to have' followed by the past participle. On the other hand, the future tense is expressed morphologically by adding the particle {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} at the end of an inflected verb and after enclitic pronouns, if there are any in the sentence.<ref name=":1" />

The passive is expressed in Pomattertitsch by using the auxiliary {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'come' followed by the past participle of the verb, which agrees in gender and number with the subject of the sentence: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'salami is eaten raw'. The causative is expressed using {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'do' followed by the agent of the caused event, then the preposition z (separate word, not morpheme), and then the infinitive: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'and he makes the girl eat'. The imperative is expressed most commonly by using {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'do' plus the infinitive, as stated above: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'do ask, ask!'. Another way is the bare indicative stem for the singular form, and the same present indicative form for the plural: {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'speak German, you!' and {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'come (pl) here!'.<ref name=":1" />

There are two different subjunctive forms used in Pomattertitsch. The first form is used mainly in reported speech and in subordinate clauses that follow 'say' or 'think'. It also occurs in complement clauses that follow {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'that'. The second form is used for the conditional mood, where the conjunction {{#invoke:Lang|lang}} 'if' can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence.<ref name=":1" />

Table 10 Subjunctive 1:<ref name=":1" />

'to be' 'to do' 'to go' 'can' 'to eat' 'to work'
lang}} 'I' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'he, it, she' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'we' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you all' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'they' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}

Table 11 Subjunctive 2:<ref name=":1" />

'to be' 'to do' 'to go' 'can' 'to eat' 'to work'
lang}} 'I' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'he, it, she' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'we' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'you all' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}
lang}} 'they' lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}} lang}}

SyntaxEdit

The Walser German dialect group has the same word order as German, for the most part. For some dialects, however, there is a change occurring in the word order of verbal brace constructions. In German, the finite verb occurs in the second position, and the non-finite verb occurs in the final position:<ref name=":2">Ramat, Anna Giacalone. "The Pairing of Structure and Function in Syntactic Development." INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FACTORS IN SYNTACTIC CHANGE, Gerritsen, Marinel, & Stein, Dieter Eds], Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter, 1992, Pp 317-339.ProQuest. Web. 19 Apr. 2016.</ref>

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

Peter has just now the ball into the goal thrown

'Peter threw the ball into the goal just now'

In some dialects, specifically Gressoney, Formazza, and Rimella, the finite and non-finite verbs occur right next to each other, with the complements and adverbials at the end of the sentence. An example of this in Rimella is given below:<ref name=":2" />

{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}

the father and the mother have made the cross to the child

'The father and mother made a cross for the child'

This is a change from SOV (subject, object, verb) to SVO word order. This change is due to the increasing influence of Italian on Walser German. However, the SOV word order is still used when there is negation and when there is an inverted subject.<ref name=":2" />

Some southern dialects of Walser German are starting to omit the subject pronoun of sentences, just having the inflection on the verb to indicate what the subject is. This phenomenon is known as pro-dropping, and is common among languages. Italian is a pro-drop language, and German is not,<ref>With the reservation that colloquial and dialectal German, unlike the standard language, are also partially pro-drop.</ref> which means that Italian is influencing some southern dialects of Walser German.<ref name=":2" />

ExampleEdit

File:Panneaux bilingues Issime AO.JPG
Bilingual road signs (French - Töitschu) in Issime - Éischeme, Aosta Valley.

«{{#invoke:Lang|lang}}<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>»

English rough translation:

"My grandfather came from Gaby, my grandmother from Issime, from hamlet Praz. Stévenin was the father, the grandmother came from the Chémonal family. [...] The pasture [in the Bourines Valley] probably belonged to my grandfather. I don't know whether he was from my father's side. It belonged to my family, they had a beautiful house in Gaby. Victor, my father, was from his lineage, his father, my grandfather, came from over there... Victor le gabençois. Later he had a son, to whom he gave his name, so that my father's name was Victor too. He then got married when he was 56, and he had four sisters, two of them got married and two did not. They always worked and lived with him. Later one of them died."

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

Template:Reflist

External linksEdit

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