Xu Guangqi

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Chinese translation of Euclid's Elements
Chongzhen calendar
Complete Treatise on AgriculturePaul Xu|Personal details}} | label4 = Pronunciation | data4 =

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Chinese translation of Euclid's Elements
Chongzhen calendar
Complete Treatise on Agriculture

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Xu Guangqi or Hsü Kuang-ch'i (April 24, 1562Template:Nbsp– November 8, 1633), also known by his baptismal name Paul or Paul Siu, was a Chinese agronomist, astronomer, mathematician, politician, and writer during the late Ming dynasty.<ref>Template:Cite ECCP</ref> Xu was appointed by the Chinese Emperor in 1629 to be the leader of the Shixian calendar reform, which he embarked on with the assistance of Jesuits.Template:Sfnp Xu was a colleague and collaborator of the Italian Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Sabatino de Ursis and assisted their translation of several classic Western texts into Chinese, including part of Euclid's Elements. He was also the author of the Nong Zheng Quan Shu, a treatise on agriculture.

He is one of the "Three Pillars of Chinese Catholicism". The Roman Catholic Church considers him a Servant of God,<ref>Roman Catholic Diocese of Shanghai: 徐光启列品案筹备进程</ref> one of the stages towards formal sainthood.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> On April 15, 2011, Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi announced the start of a beatification process for Xu Guangqi,<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> which has stalled.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

NameEdit

Xu Guangqi is the pinyin romanization of the Mandarin Chinese pronunciation of Xu's Chinese name. His name is written Template:Nowrap using the Wade–Giles system. His courtesy name was Zixian and his penname was Xuanhu. In the Jesuits' records, it is the last which is used as his Chinese name, in the form Template:Nowrap<ref name="blueblue48">Template:Harvp</ref>

At his conversion, he adopted the baptismal name Paul (Template:Langx). In Chinese, its transcription is employed as a kind of courtesy name (i.e., Xu Baolu) and the Jesuits sometimes referred to him as Template:Nowrap<ref name="blueblue48" /> or Template:Nowrap.<ref name="blueblue33" /> More often, however, they describe him as "Doctor Paul" (Template:Langx;<ref name="blueblue44" /><ref name="blueblue48" /> Template:Langx),Template:Sfnp "Our Paul" (Template:Langx), or "Paul Siu"<ref name="blueblue45" /> or "Ciu".<ref name="blueblue33">Template:Harvp</ref><ref name="blueblue48" /><ref name="blueblue49">Template:Harvp</ref>

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Early lifeEdit

Xu Guangqi was born in Shanghai in Southern Zhili's Songjiang Prefecture on April 24, 1562,<ref name="dude">Template:Harvp</ref> under China's Ming dynasty. At the time, Shanghai was merely a small walled county seat in the old quarter around the present city's Yu Garden. His family, including an older and younger sister, lived in the Taiqing Quarter at the south end of the town. Guangqi's branch of the Xu clan were not related to those who had passed the imperial examinations and joined Shanghai's local gentry.<ref name="broa" /> His father Template:Nowrap (diedTemplate:Nbsp Template:C.)Template:Sfnp had been orphaned at age 5 and seen most of his inheritance lost to "Japanese" pirate raids and insolvent friends in the 1550s.<ref name="broa" />

At the time of Guangqi's birth, his father worked twenty mu (1¼Template:Nbsp ha)Template:Sfnp or less south of the city wall.<ref name=brob>Template:Harvp</ref> About half of this would have been used to feed the family,Template:Sfnp with the rest used to supplement his income from small-scale trading.<ref name="broa">Template:Harvp</ref> By the time Guangqi was 6, the family had saved enough to send him to a local school, where a later hagiographer records him piously upbraiding his classmates when they spoke of wanting to use their education for wealth or mystical power.

Guangqi supposedly advised, "None of these things is worth doing. If you want to talk about the sort of person you want to become, then it should be to establish yourself and to follow the Way. Bring order to the state and the people. Revere the orthodox and expose the heterodox. Don't waste the chance to be someone who matters in this world."<ref name="brob" /> From 1569 to 1573, the family sent Guangqi to the school at the Buddhist monastery at Longhua.<ref name="dude" /> It is not recorded, but this school was probably a separate secular and fee-based institution for families too poor to hire private tutors for their sons.<ref name="brob" />

His mother died on May 8, 1592, and he undertook the ritual mourning period in her honor.<ref name="duuuude" /> His whereabouts over the next few years are uncertain but he seems to have failed the provincial exam at Beijing in 1594, after the mourning period was over.<ref name="duuuude" />

CareerEdit

In 1596, he moved to Xunzhou (now Guiping) in Guangxi to assist its prefect Zhao Fengyu, a Shanghai native who had passed the juren exams in 1555.<ref name="duuuude">Template:Harvp</ref> The next year, he traveled to Beijing in the spring and passed its provincial exam, becoming a juren.<ref name="duuuude" /> He seems to have stayed there for the imperial exam the next year, but failed to pass. He then returned to Shanghai around April, turning his attention to the study of military and agricultural subjects.<ref name="duuuude" /> The next year he studied under Cheng Jiasui.<ref name="duuuude" />

He first met Matteo Ricci, the Italian Jesuit, in Nanjing in March or April 1600.<ref name=duuuude/> He collaborated with Ricci in translating several classic Western texts—most notably the first part of Euclid's Elements—into Chinese, as well as several Chinese Confucian texts into Latin.Template:Sfnp Ricci's influence led to Xu being baptized as a Roman Catholic in 1603. His descendants remained Catholics or Protestants into the 21st century.Template:Citation needed

From 1607 until 1610, Xu was forced to retire from public office and returned to his home in Shanghai. It was during this time that he experimented with Western-style irrigation methods.Template:Sfnp He also experimented with the cultivation of sweet potatoes, cotton, and the nu zhen tree.Template:Sfnp He was called once more to serve the Chinese bureaucracy, where he rose to a high rank and became known late in his career simply as "The Minister".Template:Sfnp Yet he continued to experiment and learn of new agricultural practices while he served his office, promoting the use of wet-rice in the Northeast China.Template:Sfnp From 1613 until 1620 he often visited Tianjin, where he helped organize self-sufficient military settlements (tun tian).Template:Sfnp

In 1629, memorials by Xu successfully moved the court to permit the Portuguese captain Gonçalo Teixeira-Correa to bring 10 artillery pieces and 4 "excellent bombards" across China to the capital to demonstrate the effectiveness of Western artillery.<ref name=blueblue44>Template:Harvp</ref> An earlier demonstration in 1623 had gone disastrously, with an exploding cannon killing one Portuguese artillerist and three Chinese observers, but on this occasion the pieces were accepted and directed to Dengzhou (now Penglai) in Shandong.Template:Sfnp The Christian convert Ignatius Sun, a protégé of Xu's, was governor thereTemplate:Sfnp and had also been a strong advocate of modernizing China's military. Together with CaptainTemplate:NbspTeixeira and his translator João Rodrigues, Sun used the pieces to train his troops to oppose the ongoing Manchu invasion. However, Sun's lenient treatment of a 1632 mutiny under Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming permitted them to successfully capture Dengzhou, seize the artillery, and establish an independent power base that eventually joined the Manchus.Template:Sfnp Xu's memorials for clemency were unsuccessful and Sun was court-martialed and executed.<ref name="blueblue45" />

He held the positions of Minister of Rites ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), overseeing government programs related to culture, education, and foreign affairs, and Deputy Senior Grand Secretary ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), effectively a deputy premier for the imperial cabinet.

Johann Adam Schall von Bell stayed with Xu during his final illness in 1633 and oversaw the return of his body to his family in Shanghai.Template:Sfnp There, it was publicly displayed at his villa until 1641, when it was buried "in a time of hardship".<ref name="blueblue45" />

LegacyEdit

Template:See also Xu Guangqi's tomb remains the centerpiece of Shanghai's Guangqi Park on Nandan Road ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}), just south of Xujiahui Cathedral.

The 350th anniversary of his death in 1983 was celebrated very publicly, both with ceremonies in Shanghai and a laudatory article in the Beijing Review. The vocal Communist support for these memorials has been seen as signaling support for Deng Xiaoping's policies of opening up and modernizing China.<ref name=blueblue19>Template:Harvp</ref> Most Chinese treatments of his life and legacy, however, focus upon his desire for scientific, technological, and political progress and its effect upon Chinese development, whereas Western treatments nearly universally attach great importance to his Christian conversion and identity.<ref name="blueblue19" />

WorksEdit

Military scienceEdit

Xu Guangqi wrote a book on military techniques and strategies entitled Mr Xu's Amateur Observations in response to the criticisms he faced for daring discuss military matters in spite of being a mere scholar.<ref>Xu Guangqi Memorial Hall permanent exhibit</ref> He frequently cited the Xunzi and Guanzi, and made use of rewards and punishments along the lines of the Legalists, at least in relief activities.Template:Sfnp

Xu Guangqi put forward the concept of a "Rich Country and Strong Army" (富國強兵), which would be adopted by Japan for its modernization in the end of the 19th century, under the name Fukoku Kyohei.

MathematicsEdit

In 1607, Xu and Ricci translated the first parts of Euclid's Elements (a treatise on mathematics, geometry, and logic) into Chinese. Some Chinese scholars credit Xu as having "started China's enlightenment".Template:Sfnp

AstronomyEdit

After followers of Xu and Ricci publicly predicted a solar eclipse in 1629, Xu was appointed by the Chongzhen Emperor as the leader of an effort to reform the Chinese calendar. The reform, which constituted the first major collaboration between scientists from Europe and from the Far East, was completed after his death and became known as the Chongzhen calendar.Template:Sfnp It's notable for systematically introducing the concepts and development of European mathematics and astronomy to China for the first time, including extensive translations and references to Euclid's Elements and the works of Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Tycho Brahe, whose Tychonic system was used as its main theoretical basis.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>徐光启和《崇祯历书》 Template:Webarchive</ref>

AgricultureEdit

File:Cook Xu's words.jpg

Xu Guangqi's work on military matters Mr Xu's Amateur Observations

Xu Guangqi wrote the Complete Treatise on Agriculture, an outstanding agricultural treatise that followed in the tradition of those such as Wang Zhen (wrote the Wang Zhen Nong Shu of 1313 AD) and Jia Sixia (wrote the Chi Min Yao Shu of 535 AD).Template:Sfnp Like Wang Zhen, Xu lived in troubled times, and was devoted as a patriot to aiding the rural farmers of China.Template:Sfnp His main interests were in irrigation, fertilizers, famine relief, economic crops, and empirical observation with early notions of chemistry.Template:Sfnp It was an enormous written work, some 700,000 written Chinese characters, making it 7 times as large as the work of both Jia Sixia and Wang Zhen.Template:Sfnp Although its final draft was unfinished by Xu Guangqi by the time of his death in 1633, the famous Jiangnan scholar Chen Zilong assembled a group of scholars to edit the draft, publishing it in 1639.Template:Sfnp

The topics covered by his book are as follows:Template:Sfnp

The Fundamentals of Agriculture (Nong Ben): quotations from the classics on the importance of encouraging agriculture
Field System (Tian Zhi): land distribution, field management
Agricultural Tasks (Nong Shi): clearing land, tilling; also a detailed exposition on settlement schemes
Water Control (Shui Li): various methods of irrigation, types of irrigation equipment, and the last two chapters devoted to new Western-style irrigation equipment
Illustrated Treatise on Agricultural Implements (Nong Chi Tu Pu): based largely on Wang Zhen's book of 1313 AD
Horticulture (Shi Yi): vegetables and fruit
Sericulture (Can Sang): silk production
Further Textile Crops (Can Sang Guang Lei): cotton, hemp, etc.
Silviculture (Chong Chi): forestry preservation
Animal Husbandry (Mu Yang)
Culinary Preparations (Zhi Zao)
Famine Control (Huang Zheng): administrative measures, famine flora

FamilyEdit

Xu's only son was John Xu<ref name="blueblue45">Template:Harvp</ref> Template:Nowrap Template:Nowrap Xú Jì),<ref name="duude">Template:Harvp</ref> whose daughter was Candida Xu ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}, Xú Gāndìdà; 1607–1680). A devout Christian, she was recognized as an important patron of Christianity in Jiangnan during the early Qing era. The Jesuit Philippe Couplet, who worked closely with her, composed her biography in Latin. This was published in French translation as A History of the Christian Lady of China, Candide Hiu ({{#invoke:Lang|lang}}) in 1688.Template:Sfnp Her son was Basil Xu, who served as an official under the Qing.<ref name=blueblue45/>

GalleryEdit

Jesuites en chine.jpg

Paul Xu (bottom left) and his granddaughter Candida (bottom right), along with Ricci, Schall, and Verbiest (top row)
Xu Guangqi 12 50 08 083000.jpeg

Xu's statue in Xujiahui, on North Caoxi Road
The tomb of Xuguangqi.jpg

Xu's tomb in Shanghai's Guangqi Park
Introduction to Astronomy translated by Xu Guangqi and edited by Li Zhizao.jpg

Introduction to Astronomy, translated by Xu Guangqi
Letter of Xu Quangxi to the King of Portugal in Latin.jpg

Portuguese translation of "Doctor Paul"'s letter to the king of Portugal