Xuande Emperor

Template:Short description Template:Good article Template:For Template:Infobox royalty The Xuande Emperor (16 March 1399Template:Sfnp Template:Ndash 31 January 1435), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Zhanji, was the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1425 to 1435. He was the son and successor of the Hongxi Emperor.

The Xuande Emperor ascended to the throne following his father's brief reign. He had a passion for poetry and literature, and was also known for his skill in painting and warfare. Upon taking power, he made the decision to reverse his father's plan to relocate the capital from Beijing to Nanjing. His uncle Zhu Gaoxu rebelled against the young emperor but was ultimately unsuccessful. With the guidance of capable advisors, the Xuande Emperor personally led his army against his uncle and easily defeated him.

Early in the Xuande Emperor's reign, a prolonged war in Jiaozhi (present-day northern Vietnam) ended with Ming defeat and the Viet's independence. Relations with Southeast Asian nations stayed peaceful. Communication continued with Korea, and ties were established with Japan in 1432. The northern region faced minimal Mongol threats, with relations established with the Eastern Mongols and Western Oirats. The Xuande Emperor permitted Zheng He's final Indian Ocean voyage in 1431–1433. During the Xuande Emperor's rule, eunuchs gained influence, particularly in the secret police. The emperor sought order through purges in the Censorate and military service reforms in 1428, but these did not fully address inefficiencies and low morale among hereditary soldiers.

The Xuande Emperor's government attempted to promote the use of paper money and discourage the use of coins and precious metals, but this effort was ultimately unsuccessful and paper money fell out of circulation. In the past, high taxes in heavily taxed prefectures, particularly in Jiangnan, had caused peasants to leave the economy. In response, the emperor lowered taxes and dispatched "grand coordinators" to the provinces to improve the performance of local authorities. These coordinators were responsible for addressing issues of injustice and corruption among tax collectors, as well as assessing the state of military units.

After a short reign of ten years, the emperor died due to a brief illness. His rule was marked by a period of relative peace, with no major internal or foreign conflicts. Later historians regarded his reign as the golden age of the dynasty.

Youth

Zhu Zhanji, the future Xuande Emperor, was born on 16 March 1399, as the eldest son of Zhu Gaochi (the future Hongxi Emperor) and Lady Zhang. His father was the eldest son and heir to the then Prince of Yan, Zhu Di (the future Yongle Emperor).Template:Sfnp In the summer of 1399, Zhu Di rebelled against the Jianwen Emperor, defeated him in a three-year civil war, and became the third Ming emperor in 1402.Template:Sfnp

As a child, Zhu Zhanji was trained in both military skills and Confucian literature by Hanlin academics. He was a talented man of letters, but his physical prowess, in contrast to his father's frail health, made him excel in military disciplines. This impressed the Yongle Emperor,Template:Sfnp who shared Zhu Zhanji's love for hunting and riding.Template:Sfnp The Yongle Emperor allowed Zhu Zhanji to accompany him on hunting trips and military inspections. In 1414, the emperor even took the prince with him on a campaign against the Mongols.Template:Sfnp Later, as emperor, Zhu Zhanji personally participated in skirmishes with the Mongols on the northern border. During one of these battles, he demonstrated his skill with a bow by shooting several Mongol warriors.Template:Sfnp

In 1411, Zhu Zhanji was appointed as Huang Taisun (Template:Zhi; literally 'imperial grandson-heir') while his father had been Huang Taizi (Template:Zhi; literally 'crown prince') since 1404.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Zhu Zhanji's education in Confucian teachings and ways of government was overseen by Grand Secretary Hu Guang (Template:Zhi). He also dedicated himself to studying military expeditions.Template:Sfnp In court intrigues, Zhu Zhanji consistently defended his father against the latter's younger brothers Zhu Gaoxu and Zhu Gaosui. This earned him their resentment. They were also concerned about his decisiveness, popularity with the Yongle Emperor, and close cooperation with the grand secretaries. They feared that their own positions would be threatened if Zhu Zhanji were to take over.Template:Sfnp

Beginning of reign

Accession

File:明宣宗馬上像.tif

Emperor Xuanzong of the Ming on Horseback

File:明宣宗射猎图轴.jpg

Hunting of Emperor Xuanzong of Ming Dynasty with arrows

In August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died due to a stroke while returning from the fifth Mongol campaign in the Mongolian steppe. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, succeeded him as the new emperor of the Ming dynasty at the start of September.Template:Sfnp On 1 November 1424, the Hongxi Emperor named Zhu Zhanji as crown prince. In April 1425, he sent the prince to Nanjing to make preparations for the relocation of the capital from Beijing. However, the Hongxi Emperor's health deteriorated and he called the prince back, but died before his son could return.Template:Sfnp

On 27 June 1425, Zhu Zhanji officially ascended the imperial throne in Beijing,Template:Sfnp becoming the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty. He chose to cancel the move of the capital to Nanjing due to his familiarity with Beijing, where he grew up, and his shared concern with the Yongle Emperor for the security of the northern border.Template:Sfnp He adopted the era name Xuande, which means "proclamation of virtue".Template:Sfnp

Upon his accession, the new emperor's officials received him calmly, as he shared his father's idealistic conservative policies. He was not only a man of letters, but also a patron of the arts, and his reign was marked by significant cultural and political achievements.Template:Sfnp Despite his short temper, he was open to advice.Template:Sfnp He was a conscientious ruler and sought to balance the influence of various factions within the Ming elite–including civil officials, eunuchs, and generals. While he was capable of making strong decisions when necessary, he typically relied on the proposals of the grand secretaries and ministers when issuing imperial decrees.Template:Sfnp In contrast to his predecessors, he lived a life of luxury and debauchery, and upon his death, thousands of women were released from the palace.Template:Sfnp

Despite this, the Xuande Emperor successfully resolved major issues during the first two years of his reign, including his uncle Zhu Gaoxu's rebellion and the war in Jiaozhi. Under his rule, the northern border remained relatively stable and peaceful relations were maintained with neighboring states in Central, East, and Southeast Asia.Template:Sfnp This stability allowed for internal reforms to take place.Template:Sfnp

Zhu Gaoxu rebellion

Zhu Gaoxu challenged his nephew's accession, but unlike the Yongle Emperor's usurpation, he was unsuccessful in his attempt. Zhu Gaoxu was favored by the Yongle Emperor due to his military prowess.Template:Sfnp He proved to be a capable and energetic commander during the civil war of 1399–1402, but his arrogance and contempt towards his older brother, the Hongxi Emperor, caused tension.Template:Sfnp Zhu Gaoxu became bitter when he was not named as a successor in 1404. His disobedience eventually led to his banishment to the backwater city of Le'an in Qingzhou prefecture, Shandong.Template:Sfnp Believing that he was the rightful heir to the throne in 1424, instead of his ailing older brother, he began plotting a coup after his brother's death.Template:Sfnp Shortly after the Xuande Emperor's ascension to the throne on 2 September 1425, Zhu Gaoxu attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Yongle Emperor by rebelling against the emperor.Template:Sfnp He accused the Xuande Emperor of abusing his power by appointing individuals with noble titles to civil offices and appointing unworthy individuals.Template:Sfnp Underestimating his young nephew as a formidable opponent, he also failed to recognize the strength of the government, which had functioned effectively during the Yongle Emperor's extended absences on campaigns in Mongolia. Furthermore, he did not consider the significant decrease in the princes' influence that the Yongle Emperor had achieved. As a result, he was in a much weaker position than the Yongle Emperor had been in 1399.Template:Sfnp

The emperor initially hesitated, but eventually succumbed to pressure from Grand Secretary Yang Rong and other advisors, ultimately taking personal command of the punitive expedition on 9 September. A vanguard of 20,000 soldiers, led by the experienced general Xue Lu (Template:Zhi; 1358–1430), laid siege to Le'an on 21 September. Despite the defenders' refusal to surrender, the imperial army successfully captured the city the following day. Zhu Gaoxu was subsequently brought to Beijing, demoted to a common subject, and ultimately tortured to death. In addition, over 600 of his followers were executed, while another 2,200 were deported to the border. An investigation revealed that other relatives of the emperor, including Zhu Gaoxu's brother Zhu Gaosui, were also involved in the rebellion, but they were not punished in order to preserve the prestige of the imperial family.Template:Sfnp

Administration

Grand secretaries, ministers, and eunuchs

The Xuande Emperor retained his father's advisers and ministers, but some offices underwent changes in their functions. The most significant reforms were made to the grand secretaries, who, during the Yongle Emperor's reign, only had an advisory role of reading the emperor's correspondence and drafting replies. During the reign of the Hongxi Emperor, they gained more influence and were now granted real executive power. This was formalized by granting ministerial titles to Yang Shiqi (minister of war), Huang Huai (minister of revenue), and Jin Youzi (minister of rites). Due to their long service to the state, they were highly respected and trusted by the emperor.Template:Sfnp Other close advisers to the emperor included Jian Yi (minister of personnel from 1402 to 1422 and 1423–1435)Template:Sfnp and Xia Yuanji (minister of revenue from 1402 to 1421 and 1424–1430).Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp Even after the Xuande Emperor's death, the composition of the most influential officials and the grand secretaries remained unchanged. As a result, the top government was dominated by the same group of people from 1424 until the early 1440s.Template:Sfnp

The emperor established a process for routine and important decrees, in which proposals from various offices were reviewed and evaluated by the grand secretaries. These secretaries would then attach their recommendations for solving issues to the documents, which the emperor would typically approve and send to the relevant ministries for implementation. Significant government decisions were made during meetings between the emperor and the grand secretaries,Template:Sfnp during which the emperor would discuss and sign the drafts of his decrees. The ministers were responsible for carrying out these decrees. This system allowed for faster and more flexible decision-making, as the secretaries no longer needed to consult with the ministers beforehand.Template:Sfnp

File:Ming Emperor Xuande playing Golf.jpg

Emperor Xuanzong at Leisure, a painting by an unknown Ming artist, painted on silk during the Xuande era (1426–1435). In the painting, the Xuande Emperor is depicted playing chuiwan, a Chinese game similar to golf, with eunuchs.

At the same time, the influence of the eunuchs serving in the imperial palace and completely dependent on the emperor grew. During the reign of the Hongwu Emperor, the first Ming emperor, eunuchs were prohibited from communicating with government authorities. Even the Yongle Emperor maintained strict control over them. The Xuande Emperor, on the other hand, provided them with education and utilized them more in confidential correspondence.Template:Sfnp Despite opposition from officials, the eunuchs' business continued to thrive, benefiting the emperor's personal projects such as logging and shipbuilding.Template:Sfnp In situations where the emperor did not agree with the ideas of grand secretaries, he would use eunuchs to convey his orders to lower branches of the state administration. As the ministers did not question the emperor's orders,Template:Sfnp the eunuchs were able to give orders to the ministers on behalf of the sovereign without his knowledge. This abuse of power was a major concern for the Hongwu Emperor.Template:Sfnp The Xuande Emperor, however, maintained control over the eunuchs and was not afraid to execute them if they overstepped their boundaries. In the long run, this approach left room for eunuchs to exploit their power if a less assertive emperor was in power.Template:Sfnp

Censorate, provincial administration, and army

In terms of internal politics, the emperor focused on implementing reforms in the Censorate, local administration, and the army. His main goal was to bring discipline and order to the state administration. He also took a keen interest in prominent criminal cases and often ordered judgments to be reviewed, resulting in justice for thousands of innocent people.Template:Sfnp In August 1428, he replaced the long-standing head of the Censorate, Liu Quan (Template:Zhi), who had been in the position since 1415, with the honorable Gu Zuo (Template:Zhi). Within a few months, Gu Zuo dismissed 43 censors from the Beijing and Nanjing offices, and Liu Quan himself was punished for numerous abuses of power. The Censorate underwent a reorganization, with changes made to procedures and an increase in the powers of the censors. Additionally, commissioners were appointed to oversee military farms, large construction projects, and military training camps near Beijing, as well as to manage taxes in South Zhili. These taxes were collected in the form of products, mainly rice, which was crucial for the nutrition of the people of Beijing.Template:Sfnp

After the purge of 1428, the censors became more efficient and open. This was evident in their thorough checks of all branches of the state administration, including both civil and military sectors. In fact, over 240 officials were dismissed between 1424 and 1434, which was three times the number of dismissals in the previous decade.Template:Sfnp While officials and censors who abused their powers were punished, they were not executed.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

During the reign of the Xuande Emperor, the regional administration saw a regular posting of grand coordinators (xunfu). These officials were responsible for coordinating the work of the three provincial offices—civil, military, and surveillance. This practice of having coordinators in the regional administration was not new, as previous emperors had also employed them. For example, the Hongwu Emperor had sent his crown prince, Zhu Biao, to "tour and pacify", while the Yongle Emperor had sent both the Hongxi and Xuande emperors to the provinces. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor even sent 26 high-ranking government officials to the provinces. The Xuande Emperor took this practice a step further by sending these officials on long-term assignments, rather than just once like his predecessors.Template:Sfnp For example, in September 1425, he sent two commissioners to South Zhili and Zhejiang,Template:Sfnp and in 1430, they were sent to Hunan, Shanxi, and Sichuan.Template:Sfnp They were also dispatched to Jiangxi and Shaanxi around 1426.Template:Sfnp

The role of grand coordinators was not an independent function, but rather a mandate imposed on high-ranking officials of the central authorities. Typically, these officials held the rank of deputy minister, particularly in the military, and later also held high positions in the Censorate. They also held the rank of (co-)superintendant of military affairs.Template:Sfnp This gave them the authority to oversee civil, military, and surveillance offices. The immediate result of implementing grand coordinators was the transfer of command over troops in the provinces to civilian hands.Template:Sfnp The system of grand coordinators reached its final form during the Zhengtong era (1436–1449),Template:Sfnp when they were assigned to all provinces except Fujian and six of the nine frontier garrisons on the northern border.Template:Sfnp

Considerable problems persisted in the army during this time period. Corrupt officers were known to bring in poor conscripts for campaigns, while allowing the wealthy to avoid service for a fee. These officers also embezzled the salaries of the soldiers and used them as personal servants.Template:Sfnp The supply of military farms was also a major issue, as it often dropped and made it difficult to properly equip the army.Template:Sfnp Additionally, capable officers had limited opportunities for advancement during times of peace, resulting in the army being led by individuals who inherited their positions without merit. These commanders, who had not experienced war themselves, often neglected to properly train their soldiers and instead used them for their own personal needs.Template:Sfnp This led to a decline in discipline, an increase in desertion, and a decrease in the overall strength of the army.Template:Sfnp

In an attempt to address these issues, inspection officials were appointed in 1427 to verify the condition and numbers of the army detachments and restore discipline, but their efforts were largely ineffective. The local military headquarters also came under the supervision of control authorities, but this did not have much impact either.Template:Sfnp In 1429, the emperor attempted to boost morale by holding a large military parade with guard units from the Beijing garrison and three training camps located around Beijing, but this did not have a significant impact on the morale of the army. The years of peace had led to a decline in the quality of training, and the emperor's leniency towards guilty officers only worsened the situation. The consequences of this decline in the army's strength were not fully realized until 1449, at the Battle of Tumu,Template:Sfnp when the Mongols were able to defeat the Ming army led by Emperor Yingzong and even take the emperor prisoner.Template:Sfnp

Economic policy

Finance and currency

File:Ming Dynasty porcelain ding vessel, Xuande Reign Period.JPG

A porcelain ding vessel from the Xuande era

In the late 1420s, the Xuande Emperor's government faced significant financial challenges. The ongoing war in Jiaozhi drained a significant amount of resources, and the subsequent loss of mineral wealth further exacerbated the situation. The imposition of high taxes and levies placed an unbearable burden on the economy of wealthy regions in China, resulting in a decline in government revenue.Template:Sfnp For instance, Suzhou, the economic hub of China, was three years behind in paying its taxes by the late 1420s.Template:Sfnp Moreover, the profitability of silver and copper mines declined in the early 1430s.Template:Sfnp To address these difficulties, the government attempted to promote the use of paper money, reduce and reform taxes, and limit government spending.Template:Sfnp

The Hongwu Emperor established paper money, known as baochao banknotes, as the primary form of currency. For smaller transactions, copper coins were also used, which were circulated alongside state notes during the Yongle era.Template:Sfnp However, both the coins and the copper used to make them were in short supply. In contrast, the government printed large quantities of banknotes, causing their value to rapidly decrease. By 1425, baochao banknotes were only worth 2% of their nominal value.Template:Sfnp In an unsuccessful attempt to promote paper currency, the Hongxi Emperor closed precious metal mines. However, the Xuande government allowed for a partial resumption of mining.Template:Sfnp

The Xuande Emperor and his advisers implemented various measures in an attempt to support the state's economy. One such measure was the pressure placed on the use of copper coins, which were seen as competition for paper money. As a result, copper coins were almost completely phased out of circulation.Template:Sfnp In addition, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji suggested a solution to combat the decline in the value of government banknotes by increasing business taxes and only accepting payment in government banknotes, but this approach did not yield the desired results.Template:Sfnp The government then shifted to a more cautious strategy, selling licenses to trade salt for state coins. This measure also failed to increase the value of state stamps.Template:Sfnp The government introduced new trade fees and customs duties on the Grand Canal, which could only be paid in shillings, but these fees had a negative impact on trade.Template:Sfnp As a result, there was strong opposition to these fees and they were eventually abolished after a few years. Despite the government's efforts, these measures did not effectively support the state's economy.Template:Sfnp The value of paper money continued to decline.Template:Sfnp By the 1430s, banknotes were no longer in use and were only used to pay employees to a limited extent. They were also withdrawn as a mandatory form of payment for trade fees. Ultimately, these measures had little impact on the country's economy.Template:Sfnp

The widespread distrust of paper currency and the scarcity of coins resulted in a growing trade in silver. Despite the government's opposition to replacing copper coins and paper currency with silver, attempts to prohibit the use of silver in commercial transactions were unsuccessful,Template:Sfnp but silver alone was not enough to meet the demands of the market. It was primarily used for large payments and paying taxes, while copper coins remained the preferred currency for smaller transactions in cities.Template:Sfnp

In 1433, the Xuande government closed the mints, causing disruptions throughout the region from Japan to Java. This halt in coin production led to a surge in counterfeit coins and hoarding of precious metals.Template:Sfnp Despite the dissatisfaction of officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress the circulation of coins produced by private entrepreneurs, but they also did not make the decision to resume state production of coins.Template:Sfnp Towards the end of the Xuande era, the government began to tolerate the use of silver. In 1433, Governor of South Zhili Zhou Chen began to collect land taxes in silver in the most heavily burdened prefectures of Jiangnan.Template:Sfnp

Taxation in Jiangnan and the empire

One of the areas that the emperor focused on for reform was fiscal policy, particularly in Jiangnan. This region, which includes prefectures such as Suzhou, Hangzhou, Songjiang, Jiaxing, and Zhenjiang, contributed a significant portion of the empire's land tax, accounting for a quarter of the total amountTemplate:Sfnp (despite the Ming dynasty having almost 160 prefectures). In Suzhou Prefecture alone, even after a reduction in the tax rate in 1393, the land tax still made up almost a tenth of the empire's total tax quota, equivalent to 2.81 million dan of rice (with 1 dan being equivalent to 107.4 liters). Additionally, Songjiang Prefecture contributed 4.14% of the total tax quota.Template:Sfnp

During the Yongle Emperor's reign, the country saw a ten percent increase in land tax revenue, which was likely distributed evenly throughout the country. However, this increase in taxes proved to be too much for the peasants in Suzhou and Songjiang, leading to a growing number of tax arrears. As if this was not enough, natural disasters struck towards the end of the Yongle era, causing even more peasants to abandon their land. By 1422–28, the amount of tax arrears had reached several million dan of rice annually.Template:Sfnp This posed a serious threat to the supply of Beijing, which relied on tax rice shipped from Jiangnan via the Grand Canal. In an effort to maintain a steady supply of rice, the government decided to reduce taxes and forgive a portion of the arrears. In August 1426, imperial commissioner Zhou Gan (Template:Zhi) was tasked with investigating the situation on the ground. He proposed a plan to reduce taxes, eliminate corruption in tax collection, and improve local administration with the help of experts sent from headquarters, led by a special commissioner.Template:Sfnp While the reduction of taxes was supported by the great secretaries, the Ministry of Revenue was able to delay its implementation for four years. Finally, in May 1430, the relevant imperial decree was issued.Template:Sfnp

In October 1430, the emperor dispatched a group of high-ranking officials (zongdu) to oversee the collection of taxes. Among them was Zhou Chen (Template:Zhi), Left Vice Minister of Works, who was sent to South Zhili. Along with Kuang Zhong (Template:Zhi), the prefect of Suzhou since June 1430, they played a significant role in implementing tax reforms in Jiangnan. During their visit, they witnessed the aftermath of a large-scale migration from the region, with some areas losing up to ninety percent of their peasant population. As a result, the remaining households were burdened with the same total amount of taxes. To address this issue, Zhou Chen introduced five major measures:

• unified measures and weights to prevent collectors from cheating;
• in each county, warehouses were built to collect the tax rice; previously, it had been stored in barns by tax captains (landowners responsible for transporting rice from villages to designated locations, such as the capital);Template:Sfnp
• the government introduced a tax supplement designated for covering the costs of transportation along the Grand Canal to Beijing, thereby easing the burden on taxpayers who only transported rice to the canal, rather than all the way to Beijing;
• in each county, restored support granaries where surplus crops were stored in fertile years in case of famine;
• introduced the collection of a portion of taxes not in rice, but in silverTemplate:Efn and fabrics, which was beneficial for both taxpayers and the government, and in the southern regions of the empire, it promoted the monetization of the economy and the textile industry.Template:Sfnp

The court generally agreed with the proposals of Zhou Chen and Kuang Zhong, but the Ministry of Revenue blocked them. It was not until 1433 that they received imperial approval to reduce taxes in Suzhou by a quarter. Other reforms in the same direction continued after 1436.Template:Sfnp

During natural disasters and epidemics, the Xuande government was known for its swift and effective response in aiding the population. Specially appointed commissioners oversaw the distribution of grain from government stocks, as well as implementing a 20–40% reduction in land taxes and forgiving other taxes for a period of one to two years. These actions were highly praised and recorded in the official history of the dynasty.Template:Sfnp

In comparison to previous reigns, land tax revenue during the Xuande era decreased to 30 million dan of rice, which was 8% less than during the Hongxi era and 5% less than during the Yongle era. The trend continued in the Zhengtong era (1436–1449) with a further reduction of 10–15%. By the end of the Ming dynasty, the land tax remained at 25–28 million dan.Template:Sfnp This reduction in expenses allowed the state to maintain a balanced budget during the Xuande era, a feat that was not always achieved in later eras.Template:Sfnp

Foreign policy

Jiaozhi/Đại Việt

During the early years of the Xuande era, a major issue that arose was the war in Jiaozhi Province, or Đại Việt under Ming rule (present-day northern Vietnam), which had been ongoing since 1408. In 1425, Ming troops, led by newly appointed commanders Li An (Template:Zhi) and Chen Zhi, suffered multiple defeats at the hands of the Viets, led by Lê Lợi. In response, the emperor appointed a new commander, Wang Tong (Template:Zhi), and a new head of civil administration, minister Chen Qia (Template:Zhi),Template:Sfnp in May 1426. Seeking advice from his entourage,Template:Sfnp the emperor recalled the Hongwu Emperor's prohibition on invading Đại Việt (and other countries) and the Yongle Emperor's original goal of restoring the Trần dynasty. Ministers Jian Yi and Xia Yuanji advocated for using military force to suppress Viet resistance, while grand secretaries Yang Shiqi and Yang Yong suggested withdrawing from Jiaozhi, but due to conflicting opinions, the meeting ended without a resolution.Template:Sfnp

File:Sino-Vietnamese War - Campaign 1427 cz.svg

Ming-Việt War (1406–1428), the campaign of 1427, and the Ming retreat of 1427–1428.

In the winter of 1426, the Ming army suffered heavy losses of 20,000–30,000 men due to Viet attacks.Template:Sfnp To counter this threat, the emperor issued orders in January 1427 for Mu Sheng, the commander of Yunnan troops, to gather an army in Yunnan and bring it to Jiaozhi. Additionally, General Liu Sheng (Template:Zhi) was tasked with leading a second army from Guangxi. The experienced Huang Fu was appointed to oversee the civil administration of the province. (Huang Fu had previously administered Jiaozhi from 1407 to 1424). Meanwhile, Lê Lợi continued to expand his operations into the Red River Valley, posing a threat to Đông Quan, the capital of the province (present-day Hanoi).Template:Sfnp Despite this, the Ming garrison successfully defended against the attack on Đông Quan, but due to the incompetence of Wang Tong, the Ming forces failed to capitalize on their success, allowing the Viets to prepare for the arrival of reinforcements.Template:Sfnp

On 30 September 1427, Liu Sheng's army reached the border, where Lê Lợi unexpectedly proposed handing over power to Trần Cảo, a descendant of the Trần dynasty. This proposal was made under the condition that Trần Cảo would rule under Chinese suzerainty. However, Lê Lợi had ulterior motives and immediately lured Liu Sheng's army into a trap, resulting in a crushing defeat. The Chinese army suffered heavy losses, with approximately 70,000 men killed. In the aftermath of this disaster, Wang Tong, without the emperor's knowledge, accepted Lê Lợi's proposal and began withdrawing troops from Jiaozhi on 12 November.Template:Sfnp Meanwhile, Mu Sheng had reached the upper reaches of the Red River and began constructing ships to advance downstream, but upon learning of Wang Tong's withdrawal, Mu Sheng retreated back to China.Template:Sfnp

On 16 November 1427, the Xuande Emperor was informed of Lê Lợi's offer. Despite divided opinions from his advisers, the emperor quickly made the decision to accept the proposal on 20 November. A delegation was immediately sent to Jiaozhi to negotiate the details.Template:Sfnp This move was seen as a surrender by the Ming after their defeat in battle, solidifying Lê Lợi's prestige. Lê Lợi informed the negotiators that Trần Cảo had died, another member of the Trần family was no longer alive, and they should recognize him as the king. He also refused to repatriate Chinese prisoners and officials.Template:Sfnp The Xuande Emperor, however, refused to recognize Lê Lợi as the ruler of Đại Việt and demanded the return of the Trần dynasty. It was not until 1431, when Lê Lợi sent a humble letter, that the Xuande Emperor appointed him as "administrator of the affairs of the state of Annan" (Annan being the Chinese name for Đại Việt). Lê Lợi's son was officially recognized and given a royal title by the Beijing government in November 1436, after the Xuande Emperor's death.Template:Sfnp

The Ming's withdrawal from Jiaozhi was a blow to their pride and prestige, but it also provided much-needed financial relief.Template:Sfnp For the Viets, it was a significant victory that left a lasting impact on their culture and state. The two decades of Ming rule and education had a transformative effect on Đại Việt. The long-term warfare also resulted in a strong and efficient Viet army, which would later be challenged by Champa, located further south.Template:Sfnp

Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean

File:Zheng-He-7th-expedition-map.svg

The Seventh Voyage of Zheng He: Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legend-line Template:Legenda Template:Legenda

Envoys from Southeast Asian countries, such as Champa, Java, Ayutthaya, and Sumatra, regularly visited Beijing,Template:Sfnp but there were no envoys from the Indian Ocean coast.Template:Sfnp The ban on unauthorized trade and overseas travel by subjects was still in place, but it was not effectively enforced.Template:Sfnp

Government officialsTemplate:Efn strongly opposed long-distance voyages and influenced the emperor to cancel a shipbuilding program in 1429, led by the emperor's eunuchs.Template:Sfnp A few months later, after the death of a leading opponent of the voyages, Xia Yuanji, the emperor changed his mind. The last of Zheng He's great expeditions took place in 1430–33, possibly to restore the empire's prestige after their retreat from Jiaozhi.Template:Sfnp Zheng He brought envoys from Sri Lanka, Cochin, Calicut, Hormuz, Aden, the East African coast, and other countries to China, which pleased the emperor.Template:Sfnp

After the Xuande Emperor's death, the Ming did not undertake any further long-distance expeditions. These expeditions were only supported by the palace eunuchs, as the Confucian officials were strongly opposed to them. With the opening of the Grand Canal, the need to transport rice by sea to the north disappeared, leading officials to view naval expeditions as expensive and unnecessary imperial ventures.Template:Sfnp This decision had long-term negative consequences, as it weakened the morale and strength of the Ming fleet, leaving them later unable to effectively deal with the wokou pirates.Template:Sfnp Additionally, it also had a negative impact on China's influence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean.Template:Sfnp As a result, the end of the early Ming period marked the end of China's 300-year dominance in the East Asian seas.Template:Sfnp

Mongolia

During the Xuande era, there was relative calm on the northern border. The Jurchens, who lived in present-day Manchuria, acknowledged Ming sovereignty and did not oppose the expeditions led by eunuch Yishiha. These expeditions even reached the mouth of the Amur River.Template:Sfnp The Eastern Mongols were ruled by Arughtai,Template:Sfnp while the Western Mongolian Oirats were led by Toghon. However, Arughtai was not recognized by the Uriankhai Mongols in the southeast of Mongolia. As a result, he maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty and engaged in trade, exchanging horses for silk and tea.Template:Sfnp

In October 1428, the Uriankhaians were known to occasionally raid the borderlands, but during an inspection in which the emperor was accompanied by 3,000 soldiers, they were successfully driven away. By May 1430, the Chinese had fortified cities along the border between China and the steppe (along the later Great Wall of China) south of Kaiping (formerly the Yuan capital of Shangdu and the last Ming garrison in the steppe) and then withdrew from it. This shortened the border, providing relief to exhausted troops, but was later criticized by historians. This shift in the border to the south and the loss of a base in the steppe made it much more challenging for the Chinese to conduct raids against the Mongols.Template:Sfnp

The Ming government had hoped that the Eastern Mongols would be able to defeat the Oirats, but the Oirats proved to be stronger and launched repeated attacks against the Eastern Mongols. In September 1434, the Oirats were successful in defeating and killing Arughtai. After this victory, Toghon maintained good relations with the Ming dynasty.Template:Sfnp

Japan and Korea

The Xuande Emperor made repeated attempts to establish relations with Japan, but the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimochi (Template:Reign) adamantly refused any communication.Template:Sfnp However, his successor Yoshinori (Template:Reign) was very interested in trade with China. In 1432, using the mediation of the king of the Ryukyu Islands, Ming envoys arrived at the shogun's court.Template:Efn The first Japanese delegation arrived in China in June 1433, bringing with them horses, armor, swords, and other goods.Template:Sfnp They also brought 2.6 tons of copper.Template:Sfnp The Ming government paid for these goods with banknotes (baochao), which the Japanese immediately exchanged for silk (one-fifth) and copper coins (the rest).Template:Sfnp

The Ming authorities only accepted Japanese traders at the port of Ningbo.Template:Sfnp After 1433, Japanese delegations arriving in China were primarily composed of agents of daimyos, monasteries, and temples who were eager to access the Chinese market. Along with luxury goods, they were particularly interested in Chinese copper coins.Template:Sfnp This trade proved to be highly profitable for the Japanese, leading to a lasting relationship between the two countries until 1529. However, there were frequent disputes over the valuation of Japanese goods and the Ming government often complained about the Japanese government's inability to control piracy.Template:Sfnp Despite this, the shoguns were unable to effectively intervene against the pirates due to a lack of resources.Template:Sfnp

Relations with Korea were generally peaceful, with regular delegations traveling between the two capitals.Template:Sfnp According to Chinese records, the emperor often requested horses from the Koreans, while also asking them not to send gold, silver, or other unusual gifts that were not produced in their country. Additionally, the emperor rejected a request to admit Korean students to the Imperial University in Beijing, instead donating a collection of Confucian classics and historical literature to Korea as a replacement. While the official Chinese description of the relationship emphasizes mutual respect, Korean records highlight the emperor's personal motives for his requests—including a desire for women,Template:Efn falcons, hunting dogs, tigers, cooks, and eunuchs.Template:Sfnp

The emperor as an artist

File:Ming dynasty Xuande mark and period (1426–35) imperial blue and white vase, from The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 明宣德 景德鎮窯青花貫耳瓶, 纽约大都博物馆 .jpg

Ming dynasty Xuande mark and period (1426–35) imperial blue and white vase. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

The Xuande Emperor was an ideal combination of the virtues of a Chinese warrior and scholar.Template:Sfnp He was a talented artist and poet, and often found more enjoyment in art and leisure than in his duties as ruler.Template:Sfnp He was known for his skill in calligraphy, poetry, writing, and painting. He painted landscapes, figures, "grass and insects", and particularly enjoyed the genre of "flowers and birds".<ref name="national palace museum">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He was especially skilled in depicting animals, particularly dogs.Template:Sfnp He drew inspiration from the techniques and styles of literati painters of his time, particularly Xia Chang.Template:Sfnp He typically used ink without the use of colors, choosing subjects with symbolic and allegorical meanings.<ref name="national palace museum" /> He was considered the best painter among Chinese emperors since Emperor Huizong of Song (Template:Reign).Template:Sfnp

Some of the Xuande Emperor's works are held by prestigious institutions such as the National Palace Museum in Taipei, the Palace Museum in Beijing, and formerly in the Arthur M. Sackler Museum (a division of Harvard Art Museum) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2007, Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese Art Collections at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as "the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest".<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The Dutch orientalist Robert van Gulik (1910–1967) praised one of the Xuande Emperor's paintings, Gibbons at play, as "skilfully painted" although "not a beautiful work". The vibrant paintings suggest that the emperor painted from real animals, likely kept in the palace gardens.Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp

Not only did the emperor engage with art, but he also actively supported and influenced artistic trends of his time. He personally evaluated the works of painters applying for court positions and aimed to elevate court painting to the level of the peak of Song era culture in the early 12th century.<ref name="national palace museum" /> He also financially supported several calligraphers and painters, such as Shang Xi, by appointing them as officers of the Imperial Guard.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> His reign is also renowned for its exceptional craftsmanship in bronzes and porcelain, particularly the famous Jingdezhen blue and white.Template:Sfnp

• The Xuande Emperor's paintings
• Zhu-Zhanji-Gibbons-at-Play.jpg

  Gibbons at play (Template:Zhi; 1427), National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan

• Zhu Zhanji-Mouse and Stone.jpg

  Mouse and Stone (Template:Zhi; 1427), The Palace Museum, Beijing

• Xuande-salukis-092x0507 01lg.jpg

  Two Saluki Hounds (Template:Zhi; 1427), Harvard Art Museum, United States

• 明 朱瞻基 三阳开泰轴.jpg

  Three Yang [Goats], an Auspicious Start (to the New Year) (Template:Zhi; 1429), National Palace Museum

• 明 朱瞻基 御临黄筌花鸟卷.jpg

  Template:Zhi National Palace Museum

• Xuande Bamboo.jpg

  Marquis WuTemplate:Efn in Repose (Template:Zhi), The Palace Museum

Death and succession

In the autumn and winter of 1434, the emperor led a military detachment on a tour of the northern border, but upon returning to Beijing, he fell ill.Template:Sfnp He was sick for almost two months,Template:Sfnp until he suddenly died on 31 January 1435.Template:Sfnp He died in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the Forbidden City.<ref name="cult china zhu zhanji">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> He was given the posthumous name Emperor Zhang (Template:Zhi; 'Distinguished Emperor') and the temple name Xuanzong (Template:Zhi; 'Penetrating Ancestor').Template:Sfnp He was buried in the Jing Mausoleum in the Ming tombs near Beijing.<ref name="cult china zhu zhanji" />

The Xuande Emperor's successor was his elder son, Zhu Qizhen, who had been created crown prince in May 1428.Template:Sfnp He became emperor at the age of eight. However, the rules established by the Hongwu Emperor did not anticipate the accession of a child emperor, making it impossible to appoint a regent to govern the country in place of a minor monarch.Template:Sfnp As a result, the Xuande Emperor's decision was to have senior officials consult on government matters with the young emperor's grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively ruled the empire.Template:Sfnp Through her cooperation with the grand secretaries, state policy remained consistent until the early 1440s.Template:Sfnp

Legacy

File:商喜明宣宗行乐图轴.jpg

The Ming Emperor Xuanzong Enjoying Himself, by Shang Xi, depicts the Xuande Emperor going on a hunting trip.

The Xuande Emperor was a capable, active, and skilled ruler. Some civil officials criticized his indulgence in frequently sending eunuchs to the southern provinces seeking entertainers and virgins for his harem, and his entrusting greater authority to eunuchs—which caused problems for his successors.Template:Sfnp He saw himself as a warrior and, like the Yongle Emperor, personally led military campaigns, but his actions were relatively small (such as suppressing his uncle's rebellion) or insignificant (such as clashes with the Mongols on the northern border).Template:Sfnp The Xuande Emperor was the last Ming emperor to actively participate in governing the state and remained impartial towards the various groups that made up the ruling elite. He relied on civil officials, but also frequently utilized eunuchs and military commanders. In contrast, later Ming emperors abandoned their role as stabilizing figures and instead indulged in palace pleasures, leaving the reins of government in the hands of officials who were often divided into rival factions or, more commonly, palace eunuchs.Template:Sfnp As a result, subsequent generations of officials viewed the Xuande era as a golden age of ideal governance, in contrast to the factional conflicts and institutional decay of their own time.<ref name="national palace museum" />Template:Sfnp

The Xuande era is widely regarded by historians as the high point of the Ming dynasty, characterized by stability and peace.Template:Sfnp This was a stark contrast to the harsh administrative purges of the Hongwu era and the civil war of the Jianwen era.Template:Sfnp Capable and often long-serving ministers and officials, under the leadership of the "Three Yangs" (Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu), governed the country with a level of continuity and reliability unique to the Ming era, in accordance with the Confucian ideals of wise ministerial rule led by a capable ruler.Template:Sfnp The government also made efforts to improve the lives of its people, gave up expansion in Đại Việt, and implemented administrative reforms. While the emperor may have been harsh towards officials and lenient towards high-ranking officers, this did not significantly impact the overall character of the government.Template:Sfnp

The rebellion of the emperor's uncle confirmed to the emperor and officials that the decision to remove members of the imperial family from any influence on the military was the right one. The failure of the war in Jiaozhi and the subsequent defeat in Tumu were constant arguments used by officials against military adventures,Template:Sfnp which could potentially return power to the hands of the generals and disrupt the establishment of the Ming dynasty's dominance in government. The Ming dynasty's originally diverse elites, including generals, members of the imperial family, Confucian officials, and eunuchs, saw the first two groups lose their influence on the governance of the country. During the Xuande era, Confucian officials gained supremacy over the other groups and maintained it until the end of the Ming dynasty, marking the end of the early Ming period in the 1430s. Despite the significant increase in population and economy, the Ming military and political institutions remained relatively unchanged until the end of the dynasty.Template:Sfnp

Family

File:明宣宗画像.jpg

Portrait of the Xuande Emperor. National Palace Museum, Taipei

Consorts and issue

• Empress Gongrangzhang, of the Hu clan (Template:Zhi; 20 May 1402 – 5 December 1443), personal name Shanxiang (Template:Zhi)Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Shunde (Template:Zhi; 1420–1443), first daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Shi Jing (Template:Zhi; 9 January 1420 – 17 October 1479) in 1437Template:Sfnp
  • Princess Yongqing (Template:Zhi; d. 1433), second daughterTemplate:Sfnp
• Empress Xiaogongzhang, of the Sun clan (Template:Zhi; 1399 – 26 September 1462)Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
  • Princess Changde (Template:Zhi; 1424–1470), third daughterTemplate:Sfnp
    • Married Xue Huan (Template:Zhi) in 1440Template:Sfnp
  • Zhu Qizhen, Emperor Yingzong (Template:Zhi; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), first sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Consort Rongsixian, of the Wu clan (Template:Zhi; 1397 – 16 January 1462)Template:SfnpTemplate:Sfnp
  • Zhu Qiyu, the Jingtai Emperor (Template:Zhi; 21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), second sonTemplate:Sfnp
• Noble Consort Duanjing, of the He clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Chunjingxian, of the Zhao clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Zhenshunhui, of the Wu clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Zhuangjingshu, of the Jiao clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Zhuangshunjing, of the Cao clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Zhenhuishun, of the Xu clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Gongdingli, of the Yuan clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Zhenjinggong, of the Zhu clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Gongshunchong, of the Li clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Consort Suxicheng, of the He clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435)Template:Sfnp
• Concubine Zhen'ai, of the Guo clan (Template:Zhi; d. 1435), personal name Ai (Template:Zhi)Template:Sfnp

See also

• Chinese emperors family tree (late)

References

Sources

Pre-modern sources

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

Modern sources

• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite journal
• Template:Cite thesis

Further reading

• Template:Cite book
• Template:Cite book

External links

• {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}

• {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}