Yaxchilan
Template:Short description Template:Infobox ancient site
Yaxchilan ({{#invoke:IPA|main}}) is an ancient Maya city located on the bank of the Usumacinta River in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. In the Late Classic Period Yaxchilan was one of the most powerful Maya states along the course of the Usumacinta River, with Piedras Negras as its major rival.<ref name=ST421>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 421</ref> Architectural styles in subordinate sites in the Usumacinta region demonstrate clear differences that mark a clear boundary between the two kingdoms.<ref name=ST421 />
Yaxchilan was a large center, important throughout the Classic era, and the dominant power of the Usumacinta River area. It dominated such smaller sites as Bonampak,<ref>Coe 1999, p.125.</ref> and had a long rivalry with Piedras Negras and at least for a time with Tikal; it was a rival of Palenque, with which Yaxchilan warred in 654.
The site is particularly known for its well-preserved sculptured stone lintels set above the doorways of the main structures.<ref name=ST435>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 435</ref> These lintels, together with the stelae erected before the major buildings, contain hieroglyphic texts describing the dynastic history of the city.<ref name=ST435 />
EtymologyEdit
Epigraphers think that the ancient name for the city was probably the same as that of its realm, Pa' Chan. {{#invoke:IPA|main}}, meaning "Cleft (or broken) Sky".<ref>Martin 2004</ref> Early archaeologist Désiré Charnay dubbed the ruins "Lorillard City" in honor of Pierre Lorillard who contributed to defray the expense of his expedition into the Maya zone, while Alfred Maudslay named it "Menché". {{#invoke:IPA|main}} <ref name=ST435 /> Teoberto Maler gave it its modern name, said to mean "Green Stones" in an unspecified Maya language.<ref name=ST435 /><ref name="Kelly 2001, p.348">Kelly 2001, p. 348.</ref> For some time, the Emblem Gylph was read as Siyaj Chan, or "Sky Born".<ref name=MG119>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 119</ref>
LocationEdit
Yaxchilan is located on the south bank of the River, at the apex of a horseshoe-shaped meander.<ref>Simon & Grube 2000, p. 117</ref> This loop defends the site on all sides except for a narrow land approach from the south.<ref name=ST435 /> The site is Template:Convert upriver from the ruins of Piedras Negras, its major rival.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 424</ref> Yaxchilan is Template:Convert from the ruins of Bonampak.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 136.</ref> The site lies in Ocosingo Municipality in the state of Chiapas, on the Mexican side of the international border with Guatemala, which follows the line of river.<ref name=K339>Kelly 2001, p. 339</ref> It is Template:Convert downriver from the Maya site Altar de Sacrificios.<ref name=ST435 />
HistoryEdit
Yaxchilan has its origins in the Preclassic Period.<ref name=ST421 /> A large part of what is known of the Classic Period history of the city comes from the hieroglyphic texts of the kings who ruled during its Late Classic apogee, one of the most important of which is Hieroglyphic Stairway 1.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 431, 435</ref> Some retrospective inscriptions appear to have been used to rewrite Yaxchilan's dynastic history to suit king Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name=ST431>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 431</ref> Before the rule of king Itzamnaaj Balam II, who reigned from 681 to 742, the city was relatively small.<ref name=ST431 /> The city-state then grew to a regional capital and the dynasty lasted into the early 9th century.
Early ClassicEdit
The known history of Yaxchilan starts with the enthronement of Yopaat B'alam I, most likely on 23 July 359.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 118.</ref> He was the founder of a long dynasty and took the throne when Yaxchilan was still a minor site.<ref name=ST431 /> Hieroglyphic inscriptions dating to the Late Classic describe a series of wars in the Early Classic between the city and its neighbors.<ref name=ST431 /> K'inich Tatb'u Skull I ruled in the early 5th century and was the first of the rulers of Yaxchilan to be recorded as having taken a rival king as a war captive, his prisoner being king Bird Jaguar of Bonampak (not to be confused with the four rulers of Yaxchilan who bore the same name).<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.119">Martin & Grube 2000, p. 119.</ref> The long-running rivalry with Piedras Negras had already begun by the fifth century AD, with both cities struggling to dominate the Usumacinta trade route.<ref name=ST431 /> King Moon Skull was credited with gaining a victory over Piedras Negras in 460 and with capturing the enemy king, known only as Ruler A.<ref name=ST431 /><ref name=" Martin & Grube 2000, p.119" /> By the middle of the 5th century Yaxchilan had formal contacts with the great city of Tikal.<ref>Hammond 2000, p. 234.</ref> Bird Jaguar II, the next king of Yaxchilan, captured a vassal of the king of Piedras Negras around 478.<ref name=ST431 />
Knot-eye Jaguar I was a warlike king who was recorded as capturing nobles from Bonampak, Piedras Negras, and the great city of Tikal.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.120">Martin & Grube 2000, p. 120.</ref> In 514, Knot-eye Jaguar I was taken captive by Ruler C of Piedras Negras, as depicted on Lintel 12 from that city, where he is shown kneeling before the enemy king with his wrists bound.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.120" /><ref name=ST422>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 422</ref>
His successor, K'inich Tatb'u Skull II, was enthroned on 11 February 526.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.121">Martin & Grube 2000, p. 121.</ref> This king is notable for the series of carved lintels he commissioned, including a dynastic list that provides information on the early kings of the city.<ref name=" Martin & Grube 2000, p.121"/> K'inich Tatb'u Skull II oversaw a revival of Yaxchilan's fortunes, and he captured lords from Bonampak, Lakamtuun and, notably, the lord of Calakmul, one of the two great Maya powers of the Classic Period, as well as a success against Tikal, the second great power.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.121"/>
Little is known of the history of Yaxchilan from 537 to 629, although four kings are known to have reigned in this period.<ref name=" Martin & Grube 2000, p.121"/> Knot-eye Jaguar II is known to have captured the lord of Lacanha in 564, one of the few events that can be identified from this period.<ref name=" Martin & Grube 2000, p.121"/> It may be that the lack of an inscribed history for this lengthy period indicates that Yaxchilan had fallen under the dominion of a more powerful neighbor, such as Piedras Negras Palenque or Toniná, all of which were powerful polities in the Usumacinta region at this time.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, pp.122-3">Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 122–123.</ref>
Late ClassicEdit
The Yaxchilano murals at Bonampak's Structure I commemorate Yaxchilan's appointment of Chan Muwaan I as subordinate ruler. Yaxchilan rebuilt the site to point back toward Yaxchilan.
In 629, Bird Jaguar III was enthroned as king of Yaxchilan.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.122">Martin & Grube 2000, p. 122.</ref> In 646 or 647 he captured a lord from the site of Hix Witz (meaning "Jaguar Hill"), somewhere on the north side of the Usumacinta,<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.122"/> most likely Zapote Bobal or Pajaral located to the south of the San Pedro Martir river in the Petén department of Guatemala, based on the findings of epigrapher David Stuart (Mayanist).
Yaxchilan reached its greatest power during the reigns of King Itzamnaaj B'alam II, who died in his 90s in 742, and his son Bird Jaguar IV.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 434</ref> Itzamnaaj B'alam II was enthroned in October 681 and he ruled for more than sixty years.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123">Martin & Grube 2000, p. 123.</ref> During the last third of his reign he was responsible for a monumental building programme that included the erection of magnificent buildings with richly carved lintels, hieroglyphic stairways and carved stelae, transforming the centre of the city.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123"/> During his reign, the kingdom of Yaxchilán extended to include the nearby sites of La Pasadita and El Chicozapote to the northwest of the city.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 116, 124, 126.</ref> At times the sites of Lacanha and Bonampak appear to have been under his domination, although this region was controlled by Toniná in 715.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 126.</ref>
In 689, relatively early in his reign, Itzamnaaj B'alam II is recorded as having captured Aj Sak Ichiy Pat.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124">Martin & Grube 2000, p.124.</ref> In 713 he captured Aj K'an Usja, the ajaw, or lord, of B'uktunn, an otherwise unknown site.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/> In 726, Yaxchilan was defeated by its rival Piedras Negras, an event described on Piedras Negras Stela 8.<ref name=ST422 /> A sajal (subordinate lord) of Itzamnaaj B'alam II was captured by the enemy city, an event that is completely absent from inscriptions at Yaxchilán itself although, importantly, there is no false claim of victory.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 426. Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 123–124.</ref> It is after this period, over forty years into the reign of Itzamnaaj B'alam II, that this king embarked upon his impressive building programme, this may indicate that at this time Yaxchilan was able to exert independence from the hegemony of once powerful neighbours and claim greater political independence and more lucrative control of riverine trade.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123"/> In 729, Itzamnaaj B'alam II captured Aj Popol Chay, the lord of Lacanha.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/> This event, together with the other victories of Itzamnaaj Balam II's reign, is described both in the hieroglyphic texts of Structure 44 and also on a series of stelae near Structure 41.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/> This victory over Lacanha is compared to the earlier victory of Knot-eye Jaguar II against the same city.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/> Similarly, his capture of a lord of Hix Witz in 732 is compared to Bird Jaguar III's victory over the same site.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/>
In 749, Yopaat B'alam II of Yaxchilan attended a ceremony to honour Itzam K'an Ahk II of Piedras Negras.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 428</ref> If Yopaat B'alam II was king of Yaxchilan at this time, this would indicate that he was subordinate to the king of Piedras Negras.<ref name=ST4278>Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 427–428</ref> This event was recorded on Piedras Negras Panel 3; there are no records of the reign of Yopaat B'alam II at Yaxchilan itself, indicating that any records were later destroyed if he had indeed ruled there.<ref name=ST4278 />
Yaxchilan retaliated in 759, gaining a victory over its enemy.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 423</ref> Circa 790 CE, Yaxchilan's king Shield Jaguar III oversaw the installation of Chan Muwaan II in Bonampak, and hired Yaxchilano artisans to commemorate it (and the previous Chan Muwaan) in "Structure I"'s murals.
In 808, king K'inich Tatb'u Skull III marked his capture of K'inich Yat Ahk II, the last king of Piedras Negras, an event that probably represented the final overthrow of Yaxchilan's long running enemy, ending dynastic rule there and destroying the city as a capital.<ref name=ST431 />
Modern historyEdit
The first published mention of the site seems to have been a brief mention by Juan Galindo in 1833, published by the Royal Geographical Society.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347">Kelly 2001, p. 347.</ref> Professor Edwin Rockstoh of the National College of Guatemala visited in 1881 and published another short account.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Explorers Alfred Maudslay and Désiré Charnay arrived here within days of each other in 1882, and they published more detailed accounts of the ruins with drawings and photographs.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347" /> Maudslay ordered several lintels to be removed, and the British Museum acquired lintels 24 in 1932.<ref name="The Yaxchilan Lintels"/> Maudslay's report was published by the Royal Geographical Society in 1883.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 347–348.</ref> Teoberto Maler visited the site repeatedly from 1897 to 1900, his detailed two volume description of the ruins and other nearby sites was published by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University in 1903.<ref name="ST435" /><ref name="Kelly 2001, p.348"/>
In 1931 Sylvanus Morley led a Carnegie Institution expedition to Yaxchilan, mapped the site and discovered more monuments.
From 1970 onwards, Ian Graham made numerous visits to Yaxchilan and recorded the inscriptions there.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.348"/> These inscriptions were published from 1977 onwards in the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.348"/>
The Mexican National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) conducted archeological research at Yaxchilan in 1972–1973, again in 1983, and further INAH work was conducted in the early 1990s.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.348"/> INAH has consolidated and preserved the central portion of the site.<ref name=ST435 />
Mayanist Tatiana Proskouriakoff did some pioneering work on deciphering Maya writing using the inscriptions of Yaxchilan, and was able to identify the glyphs for death, capture and captor.<ref>Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 140</ref> Since then Peter Mathews and others have expanded on her early work.<ref name=ST435 />
Since 1990, the project La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México (Prehispanic Wall Painting in Mexico) of the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México has examined and recorded precolumbian murals such as those at Yaxchilan.
Yaxchilan has long been difficult to reach other than by river. Until recently, no roads existed within 100 miles. The only ways to get to the site were hundreds of miles by boat, or else by small plane. Since the construction of the Border Highway by the Mexican Government in the early 1980s, it is possible for tourists to visit. To reach the site, it is necessary now only to take an hour-long boat ride down the Usumacinta River from Frontera Corozal.
Some Lacandon Maya still make pilgrimages to Yaxchilan to carry out rituals to the Maya gods.<ref>Coe 1999, p. 239.</ref>
The siteEdit
The site contains impressive ruins, with palaces and temples bordering a large plaza upon a terrace above the Usumacinta River.<ref name=ST435 /> The architectural remains extend across the higher terraces and the hills to the south of the river, overlooking both the river itself and the lowlands beyond.<ref name=ST435 /> Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the monolithic carved stelae and the narrative stone reliefs carved on lintels spanning the temple doorways.<ref name=ST435 /><ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 117, 125</ref> Over 120 inscriptions have been identified on the various monuments from the site.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.348"/>
The major groups are the Central Acropolis, the West Acropolis and the South Acropolis.<ref name=K341>Kelly 2001, p. 341</ref> The South Acropolis occupies the highest part of the site.<ref name=K342>Kelly 2001, p. 342</ref> The site is aligned with relation to the Usumacinta River, at times causing unconventional orientation of the major structures, such as the two ballcourts.<ref>Scarborough 1991, p. 138</ref>
StructuresEdit
Structure 6 is near the Main Plaza in the Central Acropolis.<ref name=K346>Kelly 2001, p. 346</ref> It is in a good state of preservation and has six doorways, three facing the plaza and three facing the river.<ref name=K346 /> The doorways that open onto the plaza were blocked up in antiquity and new doorways were cut into the sides of the structure.<ref name=K346 /> The facade of the building facing the plaza has a surviving frieze with a sculpture of a head.<ref name=K346 /> The structure has a surviving perforated roof comb and is believed to date to the Early Classic.<ref name=K346 />
Structure 7 is beside Structure 6 but is in a much poorer state of preservation, with its vaulted ceiling having collapsed.<ref name=K346 /> This structure also had doorways facing both the river and the Main Plaza.<ref name=K346 />
Structure 8 is located in the Main Plaza in front of Structure 7 and divides the plaza into northwestern and southeastern sections.<ref name=K3416>Kelly 2001, pp. 341, 346.</ref>
Structure 9 is an unrestored mound northwest of Structure 7.<ref name=K3416 /> Stela 27 stands in front of it.<ref name=K346 />
Structure 10 shares an L-shaped platform with Structures 13 and 74, in the Central Acropolis.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/> The structure contains a series of hieroglyphic lintels describing the birth and accession of king Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Structure 12 is a small structure in the Central Acropolis, close to the river.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/> It contained eight lintels dating to the early 6th century.<ref name="britishmuseum.org">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The structure is located in the Central Acropolis close to one of the ballcourts.<ref>Kelly 2001, p. 341.</ref> The lintels record nine generations of rulers of the city.<ref name="britishmuseum.org"/> The lintels were commissioned by K'inich Tatb'u Skull II, their original location is unknown, being reset into Structure 12 in the 8th century by king Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name="Martin 2000, p.121">Martin & Grube 2000, p.121. Yaxchilan Lintel 35 at the British Museum</ref> Some of the lintels remain in place.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Structure 13 rests on an L-shaped platform in the Central Acropolis, together with Structures 10 and 74.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Structure 14 is the northwest ballcourt.<ref name=K347>Kelly 2001, p. 347.</ref> It is located on the Main Plaza of the Central Acropolis.<ref name="Kelly 2001, pp. 341, 347">Kelly 2001, pp. 341, 347.</ref> Five sculpted ballcourt markers were found here, three of which were aligned on the playing area and one on each of the platforms to either side.<ref name=K347 /> One of the ballcourt markers was removed from the site, the rest are broken and eroded.<ref name=K347 />
Structure 16 is close to the northwest ballcourt.<ref name="Kelly 2001, pp. 341, 347"/> It contains Lintels 38 through to 40, which have been reset in their original positions.<ref name="K347" />
Structure 19 is also known as the Labyrinth.<ref name=K339 /> It lies at the western edge of the Central Acropolis.<ref name=K341 /> The structure is a temple with rooms spread over three levels, linked by interior stairways.<ref name=K339 /> The temple facade has four doorways, with three doorway-sized niches between them.<ref name=K339 /> Two sculptured altars are located in front of the structure, which still has the remains of a perforated roof comb.<ref name=K339 />
Structure 20 is in the Central Acropolis and has three rooms.<ref name=K345>Kelly 2001, p. 345</ref> The three doorways to this structure once supported sculpted Lintels 12, 13 and 14, although only two now remain.<ref name=K345 /> A small amount of the roof comb of the building remains, and the sloped roof still has surviving friezes containing niches.<ref name=K345 /> Structure 20 was excavated by Ian Graham in 1982, during the excavations a hieroglyphic step was found in front of the building, it was reburied in order to preserve it.<ref name=K345 />
Structure 21 is on a terrace below Structure 25 and 26.<ref name=K344>Kelly 2001, p. 344.</ref> The three lintels over the doorways in this structure were Lintels 15 through to 17, although they were removed in the 19th century and are now in the British Museum in London.<ref name=K344 /> Structure 21 was excavated in 1983.<ref name=K344 /> The vaulted roof of the structure had already collapsed before 1882, filling the rooms with rubble that has now been removed, uncovering several important monuments, including Stela 35 and the remains of life size stucco figures on the back wall behind the stela itself.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 344–345</ref>
Structure 22 is on a terrace in the Central Acropolis near the Main Plaza.<ref name="Kelly 2001, pp. 341, 347"/> It still has sculptured lintels in place.<ref name="K347" />
Structure 23 is in the Central Acropolis, overlooking the Main Plaza.<ref name=K341 /> It was built during the reign of Itzamnaaj B'alam II and is especially significant because it was the first major construction undertaken after a lapse of 150 years.<ref name="BMl25">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> Structure 23 is dedicated to Lady K'ab'al Xook, a wife of the king.<ref name=BMl25 /> It originally had three lintels set above its doorways that appear to mark the re-founding of Yaxchilan in an effort to reinforce the lineage and right to rule of king Itzamnaaj B'alam II.<ref name=BMl25 /> Lintels 24 and 25 were removed at the end of the 19th century and are now in the British Museum, while Lintel 26 is in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.<ref name=BMl25 /><ref name=BMl24>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> This series of lintels are among the finest relief sculpture surviving in the Maya region.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.125">Martin & Grube 2000, p. 125.</ref>
Structure 24 is on a terrace near the Main Plaza in the Central Acropolis.<ref name="Kelly 2001, pp. 341, 347"/> It still has sculptured lintels in place.<ref name="K347"/>
Structure 25 is in the Central Acropolis close to the approach to Structure 33.<ref name=K344 /> It has not been excavated or restored, although it has some intact vaulting.<ref name=K344 />
Structure 26 is located beside Structure 25 in the Central Acropolis and has not been excavated.<ref name=K344 /> It is the least well preserved of the two structures.<ref name=K344 />
Structure 30 is in the Central Acropolis, it has three doorways facing onto the Plaza.<ref name=K339 /> The structure has two parallel rooms with well-preserved vaulting.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 339, 341</ref>
Structure 33, in the Central Acropolis, has been described as a masterpiece in stone and was probably dedicated in 756 by Bird Jaguar IV.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 342, 344</ref> The structure overlooks the plaza and the river and would have been prominent to river traffic in the 8th century.<ref name=K344 /> It has plain lower walls with three doorways, each of which supports a well-preserved lintel (Yaxchilan Lintels 1 to 3).<ref name=K342 /> In the centre of the back wall of the structure, opposite the central doorway, is a niche containing the headless sculpture of a human figure, probably Bird Jaguar IV himself.<ref name=K344 /> The roof of the structure is largely intact, including a sloped roof supporting a frieze and a well-preserved roof comb.<ref name=K342 /> There are niches in both the roof comb and the frieze, the niche in the roof comb contains the remains of a sculpted figure.<ref name=K342 /> Tennons on both roof sections once supported stucco decoration.<ref name=K342 /> Leading up to the front of Structure 33 from the plaza is a stairway, the top step of which is sculpted, this step is known as Hieroglyphic Stairway 2.<ref name=K344 />
The South Acropolis consists of Structures 39, 40 and 41.<ref name=K3412>Kelly 2001, pp. 341–342</ref> A number of stelae and altars are associated with them.<ref name=K342 />
Structure 39 has been restored and lies within the South Acropolis.<ref name=K342 /> It has three stepped doorways that open onto a single, irregularly shaped room.<ref name=K342 /> The remains of a perforated roof comb survive, with tenons that once supported stucco decoration.<ref name=K342 />
Structure 40 is flanked by structures 39 and 41.<ref name=K342 /> It has been restored and also has three doorways opening onto a single room and the remains of a perforated roof comb.<ref name=K342 /> The room has the remains of murals that once covered all the interior walls.<ref name=K342 /> Stelae 12 and 13 stand before structure 40 and Stela 11 once stood between them.<ref name=K342 />
Structure 41 has also been restored.<ref name=K342 /> Like the other two structures in the South Acropolis, it has three doorways that open onto a single room.<ref name=K342 /> It is not as well preserved as Structures 39 and 40 and much of the vaulted roof has collapsed.<ref name=K342 /> A fraction of stucco frieze from the sculpture may date the building to 740, the 3rd K'atun anniversary of Itzamnaaj B'alam II's reign.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/> The central doorway is stepped and the front wall has been buttressed.<ref name=K342 /> It is one of three principal structures atop the highest vantage point in the city and a series of stelae was set in front of it that described the military campaigns of Itzamnaaj B'alam II.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.124"/>
Structure 42 is located in the West Acropolis.<ref name=K341 /> The structure had a series if carved limestone lintels that depict Bird Jaguar IV's efforts to consolidate power, emulating events carried out by his father Itzamnaaj B'alam II.<ref name=BMl41>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>
Structure 44 is in the West Acropolis.<ref name="K347" /> It still contains a carved lintel, and has sculpted steps.<ref name="K347" /> A number of stelae were originally associated with Structure 44.<ref name="K347" /> This temple was built by Itzamnaaj B'alam II and was dedicated around 732.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123"/> The sculpted texts from this building provide an account of the 8th century resurgence of the city.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123"/> Each of the three doorways contained sculptured lintels and two hieroglyphic steps.<ref>Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 123–124.</ref>
Structure 67 is the southeast ballcourt, located in the Central Acropolis.<ref name=K341 /><ref>Taladoire & Colsenet 1991, p. 168</ref>
MonumentsEdit
Hieroglyphic stairwaysEdit
Hieroglyphic Stairway 1 leads up to Structure 5 in the Central Acropolis.<ref name=K3416 /> It has six sculpted risers consisting of various carved blocks, many of which are heavily eroded.<ref name=K346 />
Hieroglyphic Stairway 2 is the riser of the uppermost step approaching Structure 33.<ref name=K344 /> It consists of 13 sculptured blocks, numbered from left to right as Steps I to XIII.<ref name=K344 /> Steps VI, VII and XVIII are extremely well preserved and depict Bird Jaguar IV and two of his predecessors dressed as ball players.<ref name=K344 />
LintelsEdit
Lintel 1 is above the eastern doorway of Structure 33 in the Central Acropolis.<ref name=K3412 /> It depicts 8th-century king Bird Jaguar IV accompanied by his wife Lady Great Skull Zero.<ref name=K342 />
Lintel 2 is set above the central doorway of Structure 33.<ref name=K3412 /> It shows Bird Jaguar IV accompanied by his son and heir, Shield Jaguar II.<ref name=K342 />
Lintel 3 is above the westernmost doorway of Structure 33.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 341–343</ref> It also shows Bird Jaguar IV, this time accompanied by an ally.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 342–343</ref>
Lintel 10 is the last known monument at Yaxchilan, dating to 808.<ref name=ST431 /> It depicts K'inich Yat Ahk II of Piedras Negras as a captive of Yaxchilan king K'inich Tatbu Skull IV.<ref name=martingrube>Martin & Grube 2000, 152–153.</ref>
Lintel 12 was originally set into Structure 20 in the Central Acropolis.<ref name=K345 /> It is now in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.<ref name=K345 />
Lintel 13 is above a doorway in Structure 20.<ref name=K345 /> It had fallen when the roof of the building collapsed but has since been reset.<ref name=K345 /> The sculpture on the lintel is very well preserved.<ref name=K345 />
Lintel 14 is set above a doorway in Structure 20 and is particularly well preserved.<ref name=K345 />
Lintel 15 originally spanned a doorway in Structure 21, it was removed to the British Museum in 1982–83.<ref name=K344 /> Like Lintels 16 and 17 from the same series, it was carved from limestone.<ref name=BMl15>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It was originally set above the southeast doorway of the central room.<ref name=BMl15 /> Lintel 15 depicts Lady Wak Tuun, one of the wives of king Bird Jaguar IV, during a bloodletting ritual that results in the appearance of the Vision Serpent.<ref name=BMl15 /> Lady Wak Tuun is carrying a basket containing the tools used for the bloodletting ritual, including a stingray spine, rope and bloodstained paper.<ref name=BMl15 /> The Vision Serpent emerges from a bowl containing strips of bark paper.<ref name=BMl15 />
Lintel 16 also spanned a doorway in Structure 21 and was removed to the British Museum in 1982–3.<ref name=K344 /> It was sculpted from limestone and was originally set above the central doorway of the central room.<ref name=BMl16>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It shows Bird Jaguar IV holding a spear and standing over a kneeling captive.<ref name=BMl16 /> Bird Jaguar IV wears the same costume that his father is depicted wearing on Lintel 26.<ref name=BMl16 /> The capture event depicted on Lintel 16 took place in 752.<ref name=BMl16 />
Lintel 17 was another lintel from a doorway in Structure 21 that is now in the British Museum.<ref name=K344 /> It is sculpted from limestone and was originally set above the northwest doorway of the central room.<ref name=BMl17>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> It dates to the reign of Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name=BMl17 /> The lintel depicts Bird Jaguar IV and his wife Lady B'alam Mut participating in a bloodletting ritual.<ref name=BMl17 /> The king watches while his wife pulls a rope through her tongue draw blood.<ref name=BMl17 /> This ritual is recorded as having taken place eight days after the capture event depicted on Lintel 16.<ref name=BMl17 />
Lintel 24 is sculpted from limestone and is regarded as a masterpiece of Maya art.<ref name=BMl24 /> It is one of a series of three lintels that were set above the doorways of Structure 23, this one having been set above the southeast doorway.<ref name=BMl24 /> It shows a bloodletting ritual being carried out by king Itzamnaaj B'alam II and his wife Lady K'ab'al Xook, the king stands holding a burning torch over his wife, who pulls a spiked rope through her tongue.<ref name=BMl24 /> A screenfold book lies in a basket in front of the kneeling princess.<ref name="Coe 1999, p.104">Coe 1999, p.104.</ref> The lintel has traces of red and blue pigments.<ref name=BMl24 /> The ceremony represented on the sculpture took place on 28 October, 709.<ref name=BMl24 /><ref name="Coe 1999, p.104"/> Lintel 24 was removed at the end of the 19th century and is now on display in the British Museum.<ref name=BMl24 />
Lintel 25 was originally set above the central doorway of Structure 23.<ref name=BMl25 /> It was carved from limestone during the reign of king Itzamnaaj B'alam II and shows Lady Xook invoking the Vision Serpent to commemorate the accession of her husband to the throne.<ref name=BMl25 /> Lady Xook holds a bowl containing bloodletting apparatus consisting of a stingray spine and bloodstained paper.<ref name="Coe 1999, p.126">Coe 1999, p. 126.</ref> The Vision Serpent rising before her has two heads, one at each extreme, from the mouth of one emerges a warrior, from the other emerges the head of central Mexican deity Tlaloc, a water god from the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico.<ref name="Coe 1999, p.126"/> The hieroglyphic inscription on the lintel is unusual, being reversed as if it were meant to be read in a mirror, although the significance of this is unknown.<ref name=BMl25 /> Like Lintel 24, Lintel 25 was removed at the end of the 19th century and is now on display in the British Museum.<ref name=BMl24 /> The events depicted on the lintel are described as having occurred "in front of the water of Siyan Chan", a reference to the main plaza of the city being located on the shore of the Usumacinta River.<ref>Schele & Looper 2005, p. 354.</ref>
Lintel 26 was the third in the series set above the doorways of Structure 23, it is now in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.<ref name=BMl24 /> It dates to 726 and bears a portrait of Itzamnaaj B'alam II.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.122"/>
Lintel 29 is set into Structure 10 in the Central Acropolis.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/> It is part of a series of three lintels bearing a continuous hieroglyphic text detailing the birth and accession of king Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Lintel 30 is part of the lintel series carved with a continuous hieroglyphic text set into Structure 10.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Lintel 31 is another part of the series of three hieroglyphic lintels set into Structure 10.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Lintel 35 was found by Maudslay among the rubble of Structure 12 and is now kept at the British Museum.<ref name="britishmuseum.org"/> It was sculpted from limestone in the 6th century under the rule of K'inich Tatb'u Skull II and records a series of victories including that over the great city of Calakmul.<ref name="Martin 2000, p.121"/>
Lintel 38, Lintel 39 and Lintel 40 have been reset in their original positions in Structure 16 in the Central Acropolis.<ref name="K347" /> Unlike most of the other lintels at Yaxchilan, they are sculpted on their edges instead of the undersides.<ref name="K347" />
Lintel 41 was set above the south doorway of Structure 42 in the West Acropolis.<ref name=K341 /><ref name=BMl41 /> It had fallen and broken into two pieces when Maudsley found it in the late 19th century.<ref name=BMl41 /> The upper section is on display in the British Museum, the lower section is damaged.<ref name=BMl41 /> The lintel was carved from limestone and is one of a series of lintels set in the same structure that celebrate the victories of king Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name=BMl41 /> The king is shown preparing for a battle that took place in 755, his wife is offering him his spear, she is Lady Wak Jalam Chan Ajaw from the site of Motul de San José in the Petén Lakes region of Guatemala.<ref name=BMl41 /><ref>Martin & Grube 2000, p. 129</ref>
Lintel 50 is set into Structure 13 in the Central Acropolis.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
Lintel 60 remains in its original setting in Structure 12.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/> It was discovered during excavations of the structure in 1984.<ref name="Kelly 2001, p.347"/>
StelaeEdit
Stela 2 is on the lowest terrace opposite the stairway approach to Structure 33.<ref name=K345 /> It is badly weathered and dates to 613.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.121"/><ref name=K345 />
Stela 3 stands on a platform in the middle of a plaza by Structure 20.<ref name=K345 /> It was badly damaged and the fragments have been reassembled and the monument re-erected.<ref name=K345 /> One side of the stela has well-preserved sculpture.<ref name=K345 />
Stela 5 is in front of the terrace holding Structure 20.<ref name=K345 /> The upper part of this monument depicts king Itzamnaaj B'alam II.<ref name=K345 />
Stela 6 stands in front of the terrace supporting Structure 20.<ref name=K345 /> It is largely intact and depicts the 7th-century ruler Bird Jaguar III.<ref name=K345 />
Stela 7 was badly damaged, being broken into fragments.<ref name=K345 /> The monument has now been reassembled and the surviving sculpture is of excellent quality.<ref name=K345 /> The stela stands in front of a terrace below Structure 20.<ref name=K345 /> It depicts a kneeling figure.<ref name=K345 />
Stela 11 originally stood in front of Structure 40.<ref name=K345 /> The stela was removed in 1964 and shipped upriver to Agua Azul to be flown to Mexico City for display in the Museo Nacional de Antropología.<ref name=K345 /> However, it was too heavy to fly and was returned to Yaxchilan in 1965 and now lies near the bank of the river.<ref name=K345 /> The upper side of the stela depicts king Bird Jaguar IV and his father.<ref name=K346 /> The figures and the accompanying hieroglyphic panel are very well preserved.<ref name=K346 /> There are various dates inscribed on the stela with the earliest being 741.<ref name=K346 /> The stela is broken into two parts.<ref name=K346 />
Stela 18 dates from some time after 723.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123"/> It depicts the victorious king Itzamnaaj B'alam II standing over a kneeling captive, who is identified as Aj Popol Chaj, the ruling lord of Lacanha.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.123"/>
Stela 27 has been re-erected in front of Structure 9 on the Main Plaza in the Central Acropolis. The monument dates to 514 and depicts the king Knot-eye Jaguar I.<ref>Kelly 2001, pp. 346–347. Martin & Grube 2000, p. 120.</ref> This stela is the earliest known from Yaxchilan.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.120" /> Stela 27 is particularly notable because it was obviously damaged in antiquity and subsequently restored in the Late Classic, with substantial reworking in the lower third of the stela dating to the time of Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name="Martin & Grube 2000, p.120" />
Stela 31 is located a short distance in front of Structure 33.<ref name=K344 /> It is a particularly unusual monument because it is sculpted from a stalactite.<ref name=K344 /> It is undated and depicts three incised figures and some hieroglyphs.<ref name=K344 />
Stela 33 is a fragmented monument that was discovered during excavations of the platform supporting Stela 3.<ref name=K345 />
Stela 35 is an exceptionally well preserved monument found during excavations of Structure 21 in 1983.<ref name=K344 /> The stela is fairly small and depicts Lady Eveningstar (also known as Lady Ik Skull), the mother of king Bird Jaguar IV.<ref name=K344 />
Known rulersEdit
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See alsoEdit
NotesEdit
ReferencesEdit
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- Template:Aut (2001). Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México: Area Maya, Estudios 2001, IIEs, UNAM.
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