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Fuel cell
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{{Short description|Device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity}} {{Other uses}} {{Update|date=February 2021}}{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}} [[File:Fuel cell NASA p48600ac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Demonstration model of a direct methanol fuel cell (black layered cube) in its enclosure]] [[File:Solid oxide fuel cell protonic.svg|thumb|Scheme of a proton-conducting fuel cell]] A '''fuel cell''' is an [[electrochemical cell]] that converts the [[chemical energy]] of a fuel (often [[hydrogen fuel|hydrogen]]) and an [[oxidizing agent]] (often oxygen)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Saikia |first1=Kaustav |title=Recent Advancements in Biofuels and Bioenergy Utilization |last2=Kakati |first2=Biraj Kumar |last3=Boro |first3=Bibha |last4=Verma |first4=Anil |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-13-1307-3 |location=Singapore |pages=303–337 |chapter=Current Advances and Applications of Fuel Cell Technologies |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1307-3_13}}</ref> into electricity through a pair of [[redox]] reactions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Khurmi |first=R. S. |title=Material Science |url=https://www.biblio.com/book/materials-science-rs-khurmirs-sedha/d/436308472|publisher=S. Chand & Company |year=2014 |isbn=9788121901468 }}</ref> Fuel cells are different from most [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=What Are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors?|first1=Martin|last1=Winter|first2=Ralph J.|last2=Brodd|date=28 September 2004|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=104|issue=10|pages=4245–4270 |doi=10.1021/cr020730k|pmid=15669155 |s2cid=3091080 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied. The first fuel cells were invented by Sir [[William Robert Grove|William Grove]] in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came almost a century later following the invention of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell by [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] in 1932. The [[alkaline fuel cell]], also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, has been used in [[NASA]] space programs since the mid-1960s to generate power for [[satellites]] and [[space capsule]]s. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power [[fuel cell vehicle]]s, including forklifts, automobiles, buses,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bronx Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bus |url=https://www.empirecleancities.org/ktc.html |access-date=2024-04-13 |website=Empire Clean Cities |language=en}}</ref> trains, boats, motorcycles, and submarines. There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an [[anode]], a [[cathode]], and an [[electrolyte]] that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode, a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte. At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing [[direct current]] electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in start-up time ranging from 1 second for [[proton-exchange membrane fuel cell]]s (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for [[solid oxide fuel cell]]s (SOFC). A related technology is [[Flow battery|flow batteries]], in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.<ref>Nice, Karim and Strickland, Jonathan. [https://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/fuel-cell.htm#pt2 "How Fuel Cells Work: Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells"]. How Stuff Works, accessed 4 August 2011</ref> In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water vapor, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of [[nitrogen dioxide]] and other emissions. PEMFC cells generally produce fewer nitrogen oxides than SOFC cells: they operate at lower temperatures, use hydrogen as fuel, and limit the diffusion of nitrogen into the anode via the proton exchange membrane, which forms NOx. The [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a [[cogeneration]] scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained.<ref name=Types1/> {{toclimit|3}}
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