Editing Gandhari language (section)

{{Short description|Ancient Indo-Aryan language of Gāndhāra}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Gandhari
| altname          = 
| nativename       = {{lang|pgd-Khar|𐨒𐨢𐨪𐨁}} ([[Kharosthi]])<br>{{lang|pgd-Brah|𑀕𑀸𑀦𑁆𑀥𑀸𑀭𑀻}} ([[Brahmi]])
| region           = [[Gandhāra]]
| era              = ca. 300 BCE to 100 CE
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3             = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4             = [[Dardic languages|Dardic]]?
| script           = [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]]
| iso3             = pgd
| linglist         = pgd.html
| glotto           = gand1259
| states           = [[Pakistan]]
}}
[[File:Manuscrit BnF pali 715-A.jpg|thumb|Incomplete [[birchbark manuscript]] of the [[Dhammapada]] in Gandhari language and [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] script acquired by the [[Jules-Léon Dutreuil de Rhins|Dutreuil de Rhins]] mission (1891–1894) in Central Asia. End of the 1st century to 3rd century. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]]]
{{Buddhism}}{{Not to be confused|Gandhari (Mahabharata)|text=}}
'''Gāndhārī''' was an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[Prakrit]] language found mainly in texts dated between the 3rd century BCE and 4th century CE in the region of [[Gandhāra (kingdom)|Gandhāra]], located in northwestern [[Pakistan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gandhara {{!}} Buddhist Art, Greco-Buddhist, Taxila {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Gandhara |access-date=2025-05-04 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Naveed |first=Muhammad Bin |title=Gandhara Civilization |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Gandhara_Civilization/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan Showcases Its Ancient Gandhara Civilization |url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/07/pakistan-showcases-its-ancient-gandhara-civilization/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-01 |title=Pakistan: Centre of Gandhara’s Cultural Diversity |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/1118999/pakistan-centre-of-gandharas-cultural-diversity/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Daily Times |language=en-US}}</ref> The language was heavily used by the former [[Central Asian Buddhism|Buddhist cultures of Central Asia]] and has been found as far away as eastern China, in inscriptions at [[Luoyang]] and [[Anyang]].

Gandhari served as an official language of the [[Kushan Empire]] and various central Asian kingdoms, including [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]] and [[Shanshan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salomon |first=Richard|author-link=Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|date=2007 |title=Gāndhārī in the Worlds of India, Iran, and Central Asia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049371 |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |volume=21 |pages=179–192 |issn=0890-4464}}</ref> It appears on coins, inscriptions and texts, notably the [[Gandhāran Buddhist texts]]. It is notable among the Prakrits for having some archaic phonology, for its relative isolation and independence, for being partially within the influence of the [[ancient Near East]] and [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and for its use of the [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] script, compared to [[Brahmic scripts]] used by other Prakrits.

Gāndhārī is an early Middle Indo-Aryan language – a Prakrit – with unique features that distinguish it from all other known Prakrits. Phonetically, it maintained all three Old Indo-Aryan [[sibilant]]s – s, ś and ṣ – as distinct sounds where they fell together as [s] in other Prakrits, a change that is considered one of the earliest Middle Indo-Aryan shifts.{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=169}} Gāndhārī also preserves certain Old Indo-Aryan consonant clusters, mostly those involving v and r.{{sfn|Salomon|Allchin|Barnard|1999|p=110}} In addition, intervocalic Old Indo-Aryan th and dh are written early on with a special letter (noted by scholars as an underlined s, [<u>s</u>]), which later is used interchangeably with s, suggesting an early change to a sound, likely the [[voiced dental fricative]] ð, and a later shift to z and then a plain s.{{sfn|Salomon|Allchin|Barnard|1999|p=121}}

The Middle Prakrits typically weakened th to dh, which later shifted to h.{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=180}} Kharoṣṭhī does not render the distinction between short and long vowels, so the details of that feature are not known.{{sfn|Salomon|Allchin|Barnard|1999|p=124}}

Linguistic evidence links some groups of the [[Dardic languages]] with Gandhari.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOltAAAAMAAJ&q=gandhari |title=History of Northern Areas of Pakistan: Upto 2000 A.D. |date=2001 |publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications |isbn=978-969-35-1231-1 |pages=64–67 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saxena |first=Anju |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTgv1ZYGZdoC&pg=PA35 |title=Himalayan Languages: Past and Present |date=2011-05-12 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-089887-3 |pages=35 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Liljegren |first=Henrik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gRK1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |title=A grammar of Palula |date=2016-02-26 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-946234-31-9 |pages=13–14 |language=en |quote=Palula belongs to a group of Indo-Aryan (IA) languages spoken in the Hindukush region that are often referred to as "Dardic" languages... It has been and is still disputed to what extent this primarily geographically defined grouping has any real classificatory validity... On the one hand, Strand suggests that the term should be discarded altogether, holding that there is no justification whatsoever for any such grouping (in addition to the term itself having a problematic history of use), and prefers to make a finer classification of these languages into smaller genealogical groups directly under the IA heading, a classification we shall return to shortly... Zoller identifies the Dardic languages as the modern successors of the Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) language Gandhari (also Gandhari Prakrit), but along with Bashir, Zoller concludes that the family tree model alone will not explain all the historical developments.}}</ref> The [[Kohistani languages]], now all being displaced from their original homelands, were once more widespread in the region and most likely descend from the ancient dialects of the region of Gandhara.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cacopardo |first1=Alberto M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ghFuAAAAMAAJ |title=Gates of Peristan: History, Religion and Society in the Hindu Kush |last2=Cacopardo |first2=Augusto S. |date=2001 |publisher=IsIAO |isbn=978-88-6323-149-6 |pages=253 |language=en |quote=...This leads us to the conclusion that the ancient dialects of the Peshawar District, the country between Tirah and Swât, must have belonged to the Tirahi-Kohistani type, and that the westernmost Dardic language, Pashai, which probably had its ancient centre in Laghmân, has enjoyed a comparatively independent position since early times". …Today the Kohistâni languages descendent from the ancient dialects that developed in these valleys have all been displaced from their original homelands, as described below.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/608051|title=The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit|date=1936|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London|volume=8|issue=2/3|pages=419–435|issn=1356-1898|quote=... It might be going too far to say that Torwali is the direct lineal descendant of the Niya Prakrit, but there is no doubt that out of all the modern languages it shows the closest resemblance to it. A glance at the map in the Linguistic Survey of India shows that the area at present covered by "Kohistani" is the nearest to that area round Peshawar, where, as stated above, there is most reason to believe was the original home of the Niya Prakrit. That conclusion, which was reached for other reasons, is thus confirmed by the distribution of the modern dialects.|last=Burrow|first=T.|jstor=608051}}</ref> The last to disappear was [[Tirahi language|Tirahi]], still spoken some years ago in a few villages in the vicinity of [[Jalalabad]] in eastern Afghanistan, by descendants of migrants expelled from [[Tirah]] by the [[Afridi]] [[Pashtuns]] in the 19th century.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOltAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Northern Areas of Pakistan: Upto 2000 A.D. |date=2001 |publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications |isbn=978-969-35-1231-1 |pages=65 |language=en |quote=In the Peshawar district, there does not remain any Indian dialect continuing this old Gandhari. The last to disappear was Tirahi, still spoken some years ago in Afghanistan, in the vicinity of Jalalabad, by descendants of migrants expelled from Tirah by the Afridis in the 19th century. Nowadays, it must be entirely extinct and in the NWFP are only to be found modern Iranian languages brought in by later immigrants (Baluch, Pashto) or Indian languages brought in by the paramount political power (Urdu, Panjabi) or by Hindu traders (Hindko).}}</ref> [[Georg Morgenstierne]] claimed that Tirahi is "probably the remnant of a dialect group extending from Tirah through the [[Peshawar District|Peshawar district]] into [[Swat District|Swat]] and [[Dir District|Dir]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Danesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUHfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT991 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |last2=Cardona |first2=George |date=2007-07-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79710-2 |pages=991 |language=en}}</ref> Nowadays, it must be entirely extinct and the region is now dominated by [[Iranian languages]] brought in by later immigrations, such as [[Pashto]].<ref name=":2" /> Among the modern day Indo-Aryan languages still spoken today, [[Torwali language|Torwali]] shows the closest linguistic affinity possible to ''Niya'', a dialect of Gāndhārī.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Salomon |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA79 |title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages |date=1998-12-10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535666-3 |pages=79 |language=en}}</ref>