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{{short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --> {{Redirect|New science|the treatise about history|The New Science{{!}}''The New Science''}} {{for-multi|approaches to the study of history of science|Historiography of science|the academic field that comprises science and its corresponding technological advances|History of science and technology|the academic journal|History of Science (journal){{!}}''History of Science'' (journal)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}} {{CS1 config|mode=cs1}} {{Science|expanded=Overview}} The '''history of science''' covers the development of [[science]] from [[ancient history|ancient times]] to the [[present]]. It encompasses all three major [[branches of science]]: [[natural science|natural]], [[social science|social]], and [[formal science|formal]].<ref name = "cohen2021">{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = Eliel | year = 2021 | chapter = The boundary lens: theorising academic activity | title = The University and its Boundaries |edition=1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | pages = 14–41 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0367562984 | access-date = 8 June 2021 | archive-date = 5 May 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | url-status = live }}</ref> [[Protoscience]], [[Science in the ancient world|early sciences]], and natural philosophies such as [[alchemy]] and [[astrology]] that existed during the [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]], [[classical antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]], declined during the [[early modern period]] after the establishment of formal disciplines of [[science in the Age of Enlightenment]]. The earliest roots of scientific thinking and practice can be traced to [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.<ref name= "lindberg2007a" >{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Science before the Greeks | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 1–20 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Grant2007a">{{cite book | last= Grant| first= Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Ancient Egypt to Plato | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran| url-access= limited| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 1]–26| location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> These civilizations' contributions to [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], and [[medicine]] influenced later Greek [[natural philosophy]] of [[Science in classical antiquity|classical antiquity]], wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the [[Universe|physical world]] based on natural causes.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/><ref name= "Grant2007a"/> After the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]], knowledge of [[Science in ancient Greece|Greek conceptions of the world]] deteriorated in Latin-speaking [[Western Europe]] during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of [[European science in the Middle Ages|the Middle Ages]],<ref name= "lindberg2007i">{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The revival of learning in the West | title=The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 193–224 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> but continued to thrive in the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking [[Byzantine Empire]]. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] worldview was preserved and absorbed into the [[Arabic]]-speaking [[Muslim world]] during the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref name= "lindberg2007h">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 163–92 | edition = Second | location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> The recovery and assimilation of [[Ancient Greek literature|Greek works]] and [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic inquiries]] into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.<ref name= "lindberg2007i"/><ref name= "lindberg2007j" >{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 225–253| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> Traditions of early science were also developed in [[History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent|ancient India]] and separately in [[ancient China]], the [[History of science and technology in China|Chinese model]] having influenced [[Science and technology in Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[History of science and technology in Korea|Korea]] and [[History of science and technology in Japan|Japan]] before [[Age of Sail|Western exploration]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shigeru |first=Nakayama |date=1995 |title=History of East Asian Science: Needs and Opportunities |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/301914 |journal=Osiris |access-date=10 February 2024 |pages=80–94 |volume=10 |doi=10.1086/368744 |jstor=301914 |s2cid=224789083 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Among the [[Pre-Columbian]] peoples of [[Mesoamerica]], the [[Zapotec civilization]] established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics for [[Mesoamerican calendars|producing calendars]], followed by other civilizations such as the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]. Natural philosophy was transformed by the [[Scientific Revolution]] that transpired during the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küskü |first=Elif Aslan |date=2022 |title=Examination of Scientific Revolution Medicine on the Human Body / Bilimsel Devrim Tıbbını İnsan Bedeni Üzerinden İncelemek |url=https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |journal=The Legends: Journal of European History Studies |access-date=28 September 2022 |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112202215/https://www.academia.edu/87500649 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hendrix |first=Scott E. |title=Natural Philosophy or Science in Premodern Epistemic Regimes? The Case of the Astrology of Albert the Great and Galileo Galilei |journal=Teorie Vědy / Theory of Science |year=2011 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.46938/tv.2011.72 |s2cid=258069710 |url=http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |access-date=20 February 2012 |archive-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121118024030/http://teorievedy.flu.cas.cz/index.php/tv/issue/view/10 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= "Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | location = New York| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> as [[Scientific Revolution#New ideas|new ideas and discoveries]] departed from [[Scientific Revolution#Ancient and medieval background|previous Greek conceptions]] and traditions.<ref name= "Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name= "lindberg2007n">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The Beginnings of Western Science| pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name= "Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= 1 June 2018|archive-date= 11 December 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name= Grant2007c>{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> The New Science that emerged was more [[Mechanical philosophy|mechanistic]] in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined [[scientific method]].<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name= "gal2021i">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = The New Science | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 308–349 | location = New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020b">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The scientific revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 25–57 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The [[chemical revolution]] of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for [[chemistry]].<ref name= "bowlermorus2020c">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The chemical revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 58–82 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> In the [[19th century in science|19th century]], new perspectives regarding the [[conservation of energy]], [[age of Earth]], and [[evolution]] came into focus.<ref name= "bowlermorus2020d">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The conservation of energy | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 83–107 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020e">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The age of the earth | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 108–133 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020f">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = The Darwinian revolution | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 134–171 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book | editor1-last= Cahan | editor1-first= David | title= From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science | date= 2003 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago |isbn= 978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref>The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</ref><ref name= "Lightman 19th">{{cite book|last1= Lightman|first1= Bernard|editor1-last= Shank|editor1-first= Michael|editor2-last= Numbers|editor2-first= Ronald|editor3-last= Harrison|editor3-first= Peter|title= Wrestling with Nature |date= 2011|publisher= University of Chicago Press|location= Chicago|isbn= 978-0-226-31783-0|page= 367|chapter=Science and the Public}}</ref> And in the 20th century, new discoveries in [[genetics]] and [[physics]] laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as [[molecular biology]] and [[particle physics]].<ref name= "bowlermorus2020h">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Genetics | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 197–221 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref><ref name= "bowlermorus2020k">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Twentieth-century physics | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 262–285 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref> Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of "[[big science]]," particularly after [[World War II]].<ref name= "bowlermorus2020h"/><ref name= "bowlermorus2020k"/><ref name= "bowlermorus2020a">{{cite book | last1 = Bowler | first1 = Peter J. | last2 = Morus | first2 = Iwan Rhys | year = 2020 | chapter = Introduction: Science, society, and history | title = Making Modern Science | pages = 1–24 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0226365763}}</ref>
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