Editing Muhammad Abduh (section)

{{Short description|Egyptian jurist and theologian (1849–1905)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| image              = The late Grand Moufti.png
| caption            =
| title              =
| birth_name         =
| birth_date         = {{Birth-date|1849}}<ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kerr |first=Malcolm H. |editor-first=Dale H. |editor-last=Hoiberg |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title='Abduh Muhammad |edition=15th |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |volume=I: A-ak Bayes |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-1-59339-837-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/20 20–21] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/20 }}</ref>
| birth_place        = [[Shubra Khit]], [[Eyalet of Egypt|Egypt]]
| death_date         = 11 July 1905  (aged 56)
| death_place        = [[Alexandria]], [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]]
| death_cause        = [[Renal cell carcinoma]]
| resting_place      =
| other_names        =
| nationality        = Egyptian
| era                =
| region             = [[Middle East]]
| occupation         = [[Ulama|Islamic scholar]], [[Faqīh|jurist]], and [[Islamic theology|theologian]]<ref name="Brill 2016">{{cite book |last=Büssow |first=Johann |year=2016 |chapter=Muḥammad ʿAbduh: The Theology of Unity (Egypt, 1898) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 |editor1-last=Bentlage |editor1-first=Björn |editor2-last=Eggert |editor2-first=Marion |editor3-last=Krämer |editor3-first=Hans-Martin |editor4-last=Reichmuth |editor4-first=Stefan |editor4-link=Stefan Reichmuth (academic) |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |series=Numen Book Series |volume=154 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |pages=141–159 |doi=10.1163/9789004329003_013 |isbn=978-90-04-32511-1 |access-date=25 October 2020}}</ref>
| religion           = [[Islam]]
| jurisprudence      =
| creed              =
| movement           = [[Islamic Modernism]]<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://muslimmatters.org/2014/04/22/on-salafi-islam-dr-yasir-qadhi/5/|title=On Salafi Islam Dr. Yasir Qadhi|date=22 April 2014|publisher=Muslim Matters|access-date=14 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220205421/http://muslimmatters.org/2014/04/22/on-salafi-islam-dr-yasir-qadhi/5/|archive-date=20 December 2014| url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Kurzman, Charles, ed. Modernist Islam, 1840-1940: a sourcebook. Oxford University Press, USA, 2002.</ref><ref>Amir, Ahmad N., Abdi O. Shuriye, and Ahmad F. Ismail. "Muhammad Abduh's contributions to modernity." Asian Journal of Management Sciences and Education 1.1 (2012): 163-175.</ref><ref>Sedgwick, Mark. Muhammad Abduh. Simon and Schuster, 2014.</ref><br />[[Pan-Islamism]]<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bentlage, Eggert, Martin Krämer, Reichmuth |first=Björn, Marion, Hans, Stefan |title=Religious Dynamics under the Impact of Imperialism and Colonialism |publisher=Brill Publishers|year=2017|isbn=978-90-04-32511-1 |location=Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands |quote="..the spirit of Pan-Islamism, i.e. the thoughts of Muḥammad ʿAbduh (1849–1905) and Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghāni (1838–1897), can be felt in Islam"| page=253}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Aydin |first=Cemil |title=The idea of the Muslim world: A Global Intellectual History |year=2017 |location= United States of America| publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674050372 |pages=62, 231 |quote="In 1884 the first pan-Islamic magazine, al-Urwat al-Wuthqa, was published in Paris by Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh."}}</ref><br />[[Sufism#Neo-Sufism|Neo-Sufism]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scharbrodt |first=Oliver |date=2007|title=The Salafiyya and Sufsm: Muhammad 'Abduh and his Risalat al-Waridat (Treatise on Mystical Inspirations) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378895 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000031 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=70|issue=1|publisher=Cambridge University Press  |pages=89–115  |jstor=40378895 |s2cid=170641656 |quote="The Sufism one encounters in figures such as Afghanı and Abduh is not anti-modern, backwards and obscurantist but was, on the contrary, the driving force in facilitating their intellectual engagement with the values of Western modernity." }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sedgwick |first=Mark |title=Makers of the Muslim World: Muhammad Abduh |publisher=One World Publications |year=2013 | isbn=978-1851684328 | quote="According to his autobiography, Muhammad Abduh continued on the Sufi path as a student at the Azhar, though he makes no mention of any other Sufis, save for his uncle. Unlike most other Sufis, Muhammad Abduh was evidently following an individual path..." |chapter=Chapter 1: The Student|pages=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Adams|first=Charles|title=Islam and Modernism in Egypt: A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh|publisher=Russell & Russell|year=1968|pages=25, 32|quote="..with this experience there began a new period in the life of Muhammad 'Abduh. His interest in Şūfism, aroused by Shaikh Darwish, gradually increased until it became the dominant influence in his life. During this second period, the shaikh retained his position as guide and mentor to the young student he retained his sympathy for Sufism throughout his life"}}</ref><br />[[Islamism]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sedgwick|first=Mark |title=Muhammad Abduh: Makers of the Muslim World |year=2013 |publisher=One World | isbn=978-1851684328 |pages=56|quote="..in 1884, Afghani and Abduh invented what would now be called radical Islamist journalism..."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=A. Dudoignon, Hisao, Yasushi |first1=Stéphane, Komatsu, Kosugi |title=The Influence of Al-Manar on Islamism in Turkey|last2= Gen |first2=Kasuya |publisher=Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group|year=2017 |isbn=978-0-415-36835-3 |location=Abingdon, Oxon|page=56|chapter=Chapter 3: The Manarists and Modernism |quote="Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838–1897), Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), and Rashid Rida (1865–1935), were the ideological roots of Islamism (Islamcılık in Turkish) in the Ottoman Empire during this period."}}</ref><br />[[Anti-imperialism]]<ref name="Roshwald 2013"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Aydin |first=Cemil |title=The idea of the Muslim world: A Global Intellectual History |year=2017 |location= United States of America| publisher=Harvard University Press | isbn=9780674050372 |page=63|quote= "In spite of his anti-imperialism, Abduh returned to Egypt..."}}</ref>
| main_interests     =
| notable_ideas      = [[Islamic revival]]<br /> [[Islamic Modernism]]<br />[[pan-Islamism]]<br />[[Education reforms|Educational reforms]]
| notable_works      = ''Risālat al-Tawḥīd'' ({{langx|ar|رسالة التوحيد}}; "The Theology of Unity")<ref name="Brill 2016"/>
| alma_mater         = [[Al-Azhar University]]<ref name="Brill 2016"/>
| office1            = [[Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah#Grand Muftis|Grand Mufti of Egypt]]<ref name="Richard Netton 2008 6"/><ref name="Zimney 2009">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Zimney |first=Michelle |year=2009 |chapter=Abduh, Muhammad (1849–1905) |editor-last=Campo |editor-first=Juan E. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC&pg=PA5 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions |pages=5–6 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |lccn=2008005621}}</ref>
| term1              = 1899 – 1905<ref>{{Cite book|last1= Bosworth |first=C.E. |last2=van Donzel |first2=E. |last3=Heinrichs |first3=W.P. |last4=Pellat |first4=CH. |title=The Encyclopedia of Islam: New Edition Vol. VII |publisher=Brill |year=1993|isbn=90-04-09419-9| location=Leiden, The Netherlands|pages=418–419|chapter=Muhammad 'Abduh|quote=".. in 1899 he attained the highest clerical post in Egypt, that of state mufti, an office he held till his death."}}</ref>
| Sufi_order         = [[Shadhiliyya]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Scharbrodt |first=Oliver |date=2007|title=The Salafiyya and Sufsm: Muhammad 'Abduh and his Risalat al-Waridat (Treatise on Mystical Inspirations) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378895 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000031 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=70|issue=1|publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=89–115  |jstor=40378895 |s2cid=170641656 |quote="He was a member of the Shadhiliyya Order, the same Sufi brotherhood to which his great-uncle Shaykh Darwı¯sh had belonged" }}</ref>
| disciple_of        =
| awards             =
| influences         = [[Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani]],<ref name="Brill 2016"/> [[Ibn Sina]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sedgwick |first=Mark |title=Makers of the Muslim World: Muhammad Abduh |publisher=One World Publications |year=2013 | isbn=978-1851684328 |chapter=Chapter 1: The Student|page=11}}</ref>
[[Ibn 'Arabi]], [[Shihab al-Din 'Umar al-Suhrawardi|Shihāb al-Din Sührawardį]], [[Al-Ghazali|Abu Hamīd al-Ghāzāli]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scharbrodt |first=Oliver |date=2007|title=The Salafiyya and Sufsm: Muhammad 'Abduh and his Risalat al-Waridat (Treatise on Mystical Inspirations) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40378895 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X07000031 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=70|issue=1|publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=90, 98–100 |jstor=40378895 |s2cid=170641656 }}</ref> [[Abu Mansur al-Maturidi|Abu al-Mānsūr al-Matūrīdī]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=L. Esposito|first=John|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn= 0195125584| location=New York|pages=196| quote="Modern thinkers such as Muhammad Abduh used al-Maturidi's methods to reinterpret traditions."}}</ref> [[Hasan al-Attar]], [[Rifa'a al-Tahtawi]], [[Gustave Le Bon]], [[Herbert Spencer]]
| influenced         = [[Rashid Rida]],<ref name="Brill 2016"/> [[Abul Kalam Azad]],<ref>{{citation|title=Maulana Azad, Islam and the Indian National Movement|author=Syeda Saiyidain Hameed|publisher=Oxford|year=2014|pages=17, 36|isbn=9780199450466}}</ref> [[Hassan al-Banna]], [[Sayyid Qutb]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gumus |first=M. Siddik |title=Islam's Reformers |publisher=Hakikat Kitabevi Publications |year=2017 |location=Istanbul, Turkey |page=183 |quote=Sayyid Qutb [...] announced his admiration for Ibn Taimiyya and Muhammad 'Abduh in almost all his books.}}</ref> [[Muhammad Asad]], [[Mahmoud Taleghani]],<ref>{{citation|title=Theological Approaches to Qur'anic Exegesis: A Practical Comparative-contrastive Analysis|author=Hussein Abdul-Raof|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|page=3|isbn=9780415449588}}</ref> [[Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur]],<ref>Yakubovych, Mykhaylo. "A Cultural Significance of the Modern Islamic Exegetics for the Theory of Religious Tolerance." Int'l Stud. J. 9 (2012): 79.</ref> [[Mahmud Shaltut]], [[Mustafa al-Maraghi]],<ref>Yahaya, Amiratul Munirah. "REFORM THOUGHTS IN TAFSIR AL-MARAGHI BY SHAYKH AHMAD MUSTAFA AL-MARAGHI." Online Journal of Research in Islamic Studies 1.2 (2017): 63-76.</ref> [[Mohammed al-Ghazali]], [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]]<ref>Warren, David H. Debating the Renewal of Islamic Jurisprudence (Tajdīd al-Fiqh) Yusuf al-Qaradawi, his Interlocutors, and the Articulation, Transmission and Reconstruction of the Fiqh Tradition in the Qatar-Context. The University of Manchester (United Kingdom), 2015.</ref>
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'''Muḥammad ʿAbduh''' (also spelled '''Mohammed Abduh'''; {{langx|ar|محمد عبده}}; 1849 – 11 July 1905) was an [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] [[Ulama|Islamic scholar]],<ref name="Brill 2016"/> [[Judge (Islamic law)|judge]],<ref name="Brill 2016"/> and [[Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah#Grand Muftis|Grand Mufti of Egypt]].<ref name="Richard Netton 2008 6">{{cite book |last=Richard Netton |first=Ian |year=2008 |title=Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-7007-1588-6 |pages=5–6 |chapter='Abduh, Muhammad (1849–1905) |quote =".. [Abduh became] a member of the Council of al-Azhar in 1895 and Chief Mufti (Legal Official) in 1899."}}</ref><ref name="Zimney 2009"/><ref name=":0">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=von Kügelgen |author-first=Anke |year=2007 |title=ʿAbduh, Muḥammad |editor1-last=Fleet |editor1-first=Kate |editor2-last=Krämer |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor2-link=Gudrun Krämer |editor3-last=Matringe |editor3-first=Denis |editor4-last=Nawas |editor4-first=John |editor5-last=Rowson |editor5-first=Everett K. |editor5-link=Everett K. Rowson |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam 3|Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE]] |volume=3 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0103 |isbn=9789004161641 |issn=1873-9830}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=E. Campo|first=Juan |title=Encyclopedia of Islam|publisher=Facts On File, Inc. |year=2009|isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 | location=New York|pages=5–6}}</ref> He was a central figure of the Arab [[Nahda|Nahḍa]] and [[Islamic Modernism]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name="Roshwald 2013">{{cite book |author-last=Roshwald |author-first=Aviel |year=2013 |chapter=Part II. The Emergence of Nationalism: Politics and Power – Nationalism in the Middle East, 1876–1945 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IlNoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |editor-last=Breuilly |editor-first=John |title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism |location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=220–241 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199209194.013.0011 |isbn=9780191750304}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

He began teaching advanced students esoteric Islamic texts at [[Al-Azhar University]] while he was still studying there.<ref name=":0" /> From 1877, with the status of [[Ulama|''ʿālim'']], he taught logic, theology, ethics, and politics.<ref name=":0" /> He was also made a professor of history at ''[[Dar al-Ulum|Dar al-ʿUlūm]]'' the following year, and of Arabic language and literature at ''[[Madrasat al-Alsun]].''<ref name=":0" /> ʿAbduh was a champion of the press and wrote prolifically in [[Al-Manār (magazine)|''Al-Manār'']] and ''[[Al-Ahram]]''. He was made editor of ''[[Al-Waqa'i' al-Misriyya]]'' in 1880.<ref name=":0" /> He also authored ''Risālat at-Tawḥīd'' ({{langx|ar|رسالة التوحيد}}; "The Theology of Unity")<ref name="Brill 2016" /> and a [[Tafsir|commentary]] on the [[Quran]].<ref name="EB" /> He briefly published the [[Pan-Islamism|pan-Islamist]] [[Anti-imperialism|anti-colonial]] newspaper ''[[Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa|al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā]]'' alongside his teacher and mentor [[Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī|Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urwat al-Wuthqa, al- - Oxford Islamic Studies Online |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426215503/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2440 |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 April 2014 |access-date=6 June 2020 |website=www.oxfordislamicstudies.com}}</ref>

ʿAbduh joined [[Freemasonry]] and subscribed to various [[Masonic lodge]]s alongside his mentor al-Afghānī and his other pupils,<ref name="Brill 2016"/><ref name="Kudsi-Zadeh 1972">{{cite journal |last=Kudsi-Zadeh |first=A. Albert |date=January–March 1972 |title=Afghānī and Freemasonry in Egypt |journal=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |publisher=[[American Oriental Society]] |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=25–35 |doi=10.2307/599645 |issn=0003-0279 |jstor=599645 |lccn=12032032 |oclc=47785421 |quote=In these efforts, Afghani was aided by some of his own disciples whom he persuaded to join Freemasonry [...] It was through this association, remarks Rida, that 'Abduh was able to establish contact with Tawfiq Pasha and other leaders of Egypt.}}</ref> but eventually left the secret society in his later years.<ref name="Kudsi-Zadeh 2"/><ref name="Ryad 2022 8">{{Cite journal |last=Ryad |first=Umar |date=2022 |title=From the Dreyfus Affair to Zionism in Palestine: Rashid Riḍā's Views of Jews in Relation to the 'Christian' Colonial West |url=https://er.ceres.rub.de/index.php/ER/article/view/9762/9312 |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=8 |doi=10.46586/er.11.2022.9762 |quote="Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1838–1879) and his student Muḥammad ʿAbduh (1849–1905) were active freemason members for many years, but they withdrew." |via=Ruhr Universitat Bochum|doi-access=free }}</ref> He was appointed as a judge in the Courts of First Instance of the Native Tribunals in 1888, a consultative member of the Court of Appeal in 1899, and he was appointed {{Interlanguage link|Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah|ar|قائمة مفتي الديار المصرية|italic=y}} in 1899.<ref name=":0" />