Editing Neurotechnology (section)

{{short description|Technology that interfaces with the nervous system to monitor or modify neural function}}
'''Neurotechnology''' encompasses any method or [[electronics|electronic]] device which interfaces with the [[nervous system]] to monitor or modulate neural activity.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goering S, Klein E, Sullivan LS, Wexler A, y Arcas BA, Bi G, Carmena JM, Fins JJ, Friesen P, Gallant J, Huggins JE, Kellmeyer P, Marblestone A, Mitchell C, Parens E, Pham M, Rubel A, Sadato N, Teicher M, Wasserman D, Whittaker M, Wolpaw J, Yuste R | display-authors = 6 | title = Recommendations for Responsible Development and Application of Neurotechnologies | journal = Neuroethics | pages = 365–386 | date = April 2021 | volume = 14 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33942016 | pmc = 8081770 | doi = 10.1007/s12152-021-09468-6 }}</ref><ref name="pmid29326561">{{cite journal | vauthors = Müller O, Rotter S | title = Neurotechnology: Current Developments and Ethical Issues | journal = Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience | volume = 11 | issue =  | pages = 93 | year = 2017 | pmid = 29326561 | pmc = 5733340 | doi = 10.3389/fnsys.2017.00093 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Common design goals for neurotechnologies include using neural activity readings to control external devices such as [[neuroprosthetics]], altering neural activity via [[Neuromodulation (medicine)|neuromodulation]] to repair or normalize function affected by [[neurological disorder]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cook MJ, O'Brien TJ, Berkovic SF, Murphy M, Morokoff A, Fabinyi G, D'Souza W, Yerra R, Archer J, Litewka L, Hosking S, Lightfoot P, Ruedebusch V, Sheffield WD, Snyder D, Leyde K, Himes D | display-authors = 6 | title = Prediction of seizure likelihood with a long-term, implanted seizure advisory system in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy: a first-in-man study | journal = The Lancet. Neurology | volume = 12 | issue = 6 | pages = 563–71 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23642342 | doi = 10.1016/s1474-4422(13)70075-9 | s2cid = 33908839 }}</ref> or [[Neuroenhancement|augmenting cognitive abilities]].<ref name=":022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cinel C, Valeriani D, Poli R | title = Neurotechnologies for Human Cognitive Augmentation: Current State of the Art and Future Prospects | journal = Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | volume = 13 | pages = 13 | date = 31 January 2019 | pmid = 30766483 | pmc = 6365771 | doi = 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00013 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In addition to their therapeutic or commercial uses, neurotechnologies also constitute powerful research tools to advance fundamental [[neuroscience]] knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wander JD, Rao RP | title = Brain-computer interfaces: a powerful tool for scientific inquiry | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 25 | pages = 70–5 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24709603 | pmc = 3980496 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2013.11.013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Golub MD, Chase SM, Batista AP, Yu BM | title = Brain-computer interfaces for dissecting cognitive processes underlying sensorimotor control | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume = 37 | pages = 53–58 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26796293 | pmc = 4860084 | doi = 10.1016/j.conb.2015.12.005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim CK, Adhikari A, Deisseroth K | title = Integration of optogenetics with complementary methodologies in systems neuroscience | journal = Nature Reviews. Neuroscience | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 222–235 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28303019 | pmc = 5708544 | doi = 10.1038/nrn.2017.15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rawji V, Latorre A, Sharma N, Rothwell JC, Rocchi L | title = On the Use of TMS to Investigate the Pathophysiology of Neurodegenerative Diseases | journal = Frontiers in Neurology | volume = 11 | pages = 584664 | date = 2020-11-03 | pmid = 33224098 | pmc = 7669623 | doi = 10.3389/fneur.2020.584664 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Some examples of neurotechnologies include [[deep brain stimulation]], photostimulation based on [[optogenetics]] and [[photopharmacology]], [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], [[transcranial electric stimulation]] and [[brain–computer interface]]s, such as [[cochlear implant]]s and [[retinal implant]]s.


The field of neurotechnology has been around for nearly half a century but has only reached maturity in the last twenty years. Decoding basic procedures and interactions within the brain's neuronal activity is essential to integrate machines with the nervous system.<ref name="Vázquez-Guardado_2020">Vázquez-Guardado A, Yang Y, Bandodkar AJ, & Rogers JA (2020). “Recent advances in neurotechnologies with broad potential for neuroscience research.” Nature neuroscience, 23(12), 1522-1536.</ref> This is one of the central steps of the technological revolution based on a fusion of technologies that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres. Integrating an electronic device with the nervous system enables monitoring and modulating neural activity as well as managing implemented machines by mental activity. Further work in this direction would have profound implications for improving existing and developing new treatments for neurological disorders and advanced "implantable neurotechnologies" as integrated artificial implants for various pieces of the nervous system.<ref name="Vázquez-Guardado_2020" /> Advances in these efforts are associated with developing models based on knowledge about natural processes in bio-systems that monitor and/or modulate neural activity. One promising direction evolves through studying the mother-fetus neurocognitive model.<ref>Val Danilov I (2024). “Child Cognitive Development with the Maternal Heartbeat: A Mother-Fetus Neurocognitive Model and Architecture for Bioengineering Systems.” ''In International Conference on Digital Age & Technological Advances for Sustainable Development (pp. 216-223). Springer, Cham.'' https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-75329-9_24</ref> According to this model, the innate natural mechanism ensures the embryonic nervous system's correct (balanced) development.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024"> Val Danilov I. (2024). “The Origin of Natural Neurostimulation: A Narrative Review of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Techniques”. ''OBM Neurobiology'' 2024; 8(4): 260; doi:10.21926/obm.neurobiol.2404260.</ref> Because the mother-fetus interaction enables the child's nervous system to evolve with adequate biological sentience, similar environmental conditions can treat the injured nervous system. This means that the physiological processes of this natural neurostimulation during gestation underlie any noninvasive artificial neuromodulation technique.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" /> This knowledge paves the way for designing and precise tuning noninvasive brain stimulation devices in treating different nervous system diseases within the scope of modulating neural activity.<ref name="Val Danilov Origin Neurostimulation_2024" />

More specialized sectors of the neurotechnology development for monitoring and modulating neural activity are aimed at creating powerful concepts as "neuron-like electrodes",<ref>Yang, X. et al. Bioinspired neuron-like electronics. Nat. Mater. 18, 510–517 (2019).</ref> "biohybrid electrodes",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boufidis |first=Dimitris |last2=Garg |first2=Raghav |last3=Angelopoulos |first3=Eugenia |last4=Cullen |first4=D. Kacy |last5=Vitale |first5=Flavia |date=2025-02-21 |title=Bio-inspired electronics: Soft, biohybrid, and “living” neural interfaces |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57016-0 |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=1861 |doi=10.1038/s41467-025-57016-0 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=11845577 |pmid=39984447}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boulingre |first=Marjolaine |last2=Portillo-Lara |first2=Roberto |last3=Green |first3=Rylie A. |date=2023-12-14 |title=Biohybrid neural interfaces: improving the biological integration of neural implants |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2023/cc/d3cc05006h |journal=Chemical Communications |language=en |volume=59 |issue=100 |pages=14745–14758 |doi=10.1039/D3CC05006H |issn=1364-548X |pmc=10720954 |pmid=37991846}}</ref><ref>Rochford, A. E., Carnicer-Lombarte, A., Curto, V. F., Malliaras, G. G. & Barone, D. G. When bio meets technology: biohybrid neural interfaces. Adv. Mater. 32, e1903182 (2020).</ref> "planar [[CMOS|complementary metal-oxide semiconductor]] systems",<ref>Tsai, D., Sawyer, D., Bradd, A., Yuste, R. & Shepard, K. L. A very large-scale microelectrode array for cellular-resolution electrophysiology. Nat. Commun. 8, 1802 (2017).</ref> "injectable bioconjugate [[nanomaterials]]",<ref>Wu, X. et al. Sono-optogenetics facilitated by a circulationdelivered rechargeable light source for minimally invasive optogenetics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 116, 26332–26342 (2019).</ref> "implantable optoelectronic microchips".<ref>Mohanty, A. et al. Reconfgurable nanophotonic silicon probes for sub-millisecond deep-brain optical stimulation. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 4, 223–231 (2020).</ref><ref>Seo, D. et al. Wireless recording in the peripheral nervous system with ultrasonic neural dust. Neuron 91, 529–539 (2016).</ref>

The advent of [[brain imaging]] revolutionized the field, allowing researchers to directly monitor the brain's activities during experiments. Practice in neurotechnology can be found in fields such as pharmaceutical practices, be it from drugs for depression, sleep, [[ADHD predominantly inattentive|ADHD]], or anti-neurotics to cancer scanning, [[stroke rehabilitation]], etc.

Many in the field aim to control and harness more of what the brain does and how it influences lifestyles and personalities. Commonplace technologies already attempt to do this; games like [[Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day!|BrainAge]],<ref>Nintendo Company of America. BrainAge (2006). Based on the work of [[Ryuta Kawashima]], M.D.</ref> and programs like [[Fast ForWord]]<ref name="Merzenich1999">{{cite book| vauthors = Broman SH, Fletcher J |title=The changing nervous system: neurobehavioral consequences of early brain disorders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=paxE8PFrsLEC|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press US|isbn=978-0-19-512193-3}}</ref> that aim to improve brain function, are neurotechnologies.

Currently, modern science can image nearly all aspects of the brain as well as control a degree of the function of the brain. It can help control [[Depression (mood)|depression]], over-activation, sleep deprivation, and many other conditions. Therapeutically it can help improve [[stroke]] patients' motor coordination, improve brain function, reduce epileptic episodes (see [[epilepsy]]), improve patients with degenerative motor diseases ([[Parkinson's disease]], [[Huntington's disease]], [[ALS]]), and can even help alleviate [[phantom pain]] perception.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Doidge N |title=The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science |publisher=Viking Adult |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-670-03830-5}}</ref> Advances in the field promise many new enhancements and rehabilitation methods for patients with neurological problems. The neurotechnology revolution has given rise to the [[Decade of the Mind]] initiative, which was started in 2007.<ref name="pmid22135580">{{cite journal | vauthors = Olds JL | title = For an international decade of the mind | journal = The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–2 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 22135580 | pmc = 3216206 | doi =  }}</ref> It also offers the possibility of revealing the mechanisms by which [[mind]] and [[consciousness]] emerge from the brain.