Editing Permian (section)

{{Short description|Sixth and last period of the Paleozoic Era}}
{{other uses}}
{{Infobox geologic timespan
| name                         = {{color|white|Permian}}
| color                        = Permian
| top_bar                      =
| time_start                   = 298.9
| time_start_uncertainty       = 0.15
| time_end                     = 251.902
| time_end_uncertainty         = 0.024
| image_map                    = Mollweide Paleographic Map of Earth, 275 Ma (Kungurian Age).png
| caption_map                  = A map of Earth as it appeared 275 million years ago during the Permian Period, Cisuralian Epoch
| image_outcrop                =
| caption_outcrop              =
| image_art                    =
| caption_art                  =
<!--Chronology-->  
| timeline                     = Permian
<!--Etymology-->
| name_formality               = Formal
| name_accept_date             =
| alternate_spellings          =
| synonym1                     =
| synonym1_coined              =
| synonym2                     =
| synonym2_coined              =
| synonym3                     =
| synonym3_coined              =
| nicknames                    =
| former_names                 =
| proposed_names               =
<!--Usage Information--> 
| usage                        = Global ([[International Commission on Stratigraphy|ICS]])
| timescales_used              = ICS Time Scale
<!--Definition-->
| chrono_unit                  = Period
| strat_unit                   = System
| proposed_by                  =
| timespan_formality           = Formal
| lower_boundary_def           = [[First appearance datum|FAD]] of the [[Conodont]] ''[[Streptognathodus|Streptognathodus isolatus]]'' within the [[morphotype]] ''[[Streptognathodus|Streptognathodus wabaunsensis]]'' chronocline.
| lower_gssp_location          = [[Aidaralash]], [[Ural Mountains]], [[Kazakhstan]]
| lower_gssp_coords            = {{Coord|50.2458|N|57.8914|E|display=inline}}
| lower_gssp_accept_date       = 1996<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davydov |first1=Vladimir |last2=Glenister |first2=Brian |last3=Spinosa |first3=Claude |last4=Ritter |first4=Scott |last5=Chernykh |first5=V. |last6=Wardlaw |first6=B. |last7=Snyder |first7=W. |title=Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System |journal=Episodes |date=March 1998 |volume=21 |pages=11–18 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/1998/v21i1/003 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/asselian.pdf |access-date=7 December 2020 |doi-access=free |archive-date=4 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704150249/https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/asselian.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| upper_boundary_def           = FAD of the Conodont ''[[Hindeodus|Hindeodus parvus]]''.
| upper_gssp_location          = [[Meishan]], [[Zhejiang]], [[China]]
| upper_gssp_coords            = {{Coord|31.0798|N|119.7058|E|display=inline}}
| upper_gssp_accept_date       = 2001<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hongfu |first1=Yin |last2=Kexin |first2=Zhang |last3=Jinnan |first3=Tong |last4=Zunyi |first4=Yang |last5=Shunbao |first5=Wu |title=The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary |journal=Episodes |date=June 2001 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=102–114 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/induan.pdf |access-date=8 December 2020 |doi-access=free |archive-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828153134/https://stratigraphy.org/gssps/files/induan.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!--Atmospheric and Climatic Data-->
}}
The '''Permian''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɜːr|m|i|.|ə|n}} {{respell|PUR|mee|ən}})<ref>{{dictionary.com|Permian}}</ref> is a [[geologic period]] and [[System (stratigraphy)|stratigraphic system]] which spans 47 million years, from the end of the [[Carboniferous]] Period {{Period end|Carboniferous}} million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the [[Triassic]] Period 251.902 Mya. It is the sixth and last period of the [[Paleozoic]] Era; the following Triassic Period belongs to the [[Mesozoic]] Era. The concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir [[Roderick Murchison]], who named it after the [[Perm Governorate|region of Perm]] in [[Russia]].<ref name="EncyclopediaGeology2005">{{Cite book | last=Olroyd | first=D.R.  | chapter=Famous Geologists: Murchison |editor1=Selley, R.C.  |editor2=Cocks, L.R.M. |editor3=Plimer, I.R. | title=Encyclopedia of Geology, volume 2 | page=213 | publisher=Elsevier | date=2005 | location=Amsterdam | isbn=0-12-636380-3 }}</ref><ref name="Ogg_etal_2016">{{Cite book | first1=J.G. | last1=Ogg | first2=G. | last2=Ogg | first3=F.M. | last3=Gradstein | title = A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016 | page = 115 | publisher = Elsevier | date = 2016 | location = Amsterdam | isbn = 978-0-444-63771-0}}</ref><ref name="Murchison_etal_1842">{{Cite book | first1=R.I. | last1=Murchison | first2=E. | last2=de Verneuil | first3=A. | last3=von Keyserling | title=On the Geological Structure of the Central and Southern Regions of Russia in Europe, and of the Ural Mountains | page=14 | url=https://archive.org/details/ongeologicalstr00keysgoog/page/n16 | publisher =Richard and John E. Taylor  | date=1842 | location=London  | quote=Permian System. (Zechstein of Germany — Magnesian limestone of England)—Some introductory remarks explain why the authors have ventured to use a new name in reference to a group of rocks which, as a whole, they consider to be on the parallel of the Zechstein of Germany and the magnesian limestone of England. They do so, not merely because a portion of deposits has long been known by the name "grits of Perm", but because, being enormously developed in the [[Perm Governorate|governments of Perm]] and Orenburg, they there assume a  great variety of lithological features ...}}</ref><ref name="Murchison_etal_1845">{{Cite book | first1=R.I. | last1=Murchison | first2=E. | last2=de Verneuil | first3=A. | last3=von Keyserling | title=Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains. Vol. 1: Geology | pages=138–139 | url=https://archive.org/details/geologyrussiaeu1murc/page/n213 | publisher =John Murray  | date=1845 | location=London  | quote=...Convincing ourselves in the field, that these strata were so distinguished as to constitute a system, connected with the carboniferous rocks on the one hand, and independent of the Trias on the other, we ventured to designate them by a geographical term, derived from the ancient kingdom of Permia, within and around whose precincts the necessary evidences had been obtained. ... For these reasons, then, we were led to abandon both the German and British nomenclature, and to prefer a geographical name, taken from the region in which the beds are loaded with fossils of an independent and intermediary character; and where the order of superposition is clear, the lower strata of the group being seen to rest upon the Carboniferous rocks.}}</ref><ref name="Verneuil_1842">{{cite journal | title=Correspondance et communications | last=Verneuil | first=E. | journal=Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France | year=1842 | volume=13 | pages=11–14 | quote=Le nom de Système Permien, nom dérivé de l'ancien royaume de Permie, aujourd'hui gouvernement de Perm, donc ce dépôt occupe une large part, semblerait assez lui convener ... | quote-pages=12–13 | trans-quote=The name of the Permian System, a name derived from the ancient kingdom of [[Permia]], today the [[Perm Governorate|Government of Perm]], of which this deposit occupies a large part, would seem to suit it well enough ...}}</ref>

The Permian witnessed the diversification of the two groups of [[amniote]]s, the [[synapsid]]s and the [[Sauropsida|sauropsids]] ([[reptile]]s). The world at the time was dominated by the supercontinent [[Pangaea]], which had formed due to the collision of [[Euramerica]] and [[Gondwana]] during the Carboniferous. Pangaea was surrounded by the superocean [[Panthalassa]]. The [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse]] left behind vast regions of [[desert]] within the continental interior.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010RainforestCollapse">{{cite journal | last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M.J. |last3=Falcon-Lang |first3=H.J. | year=2010 | title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica | journal=Geology | volume=38 | pages=1079–1082 | doi=10.1130/G31182.1 | issue=12 | bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S | s2cid=128642769 }}</ref> Amniotes, which could better cope with these drier conditions, rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors.

Various authors recognise at least three,<ref name="Didier&Laurin_2021">{{cite journal |last1=Didier |first1=Gilles |last2=Laurin |first2=Michel |title=Distributions of extinction times from fossil ages and tree topologies: the example of mid-Permian synapsid extinctions |journal=PeerJ |date=9 December 2021 |volume=9 |pages=e12577 |doi=10.7717/peerj.12577|pmid=34966586 |pmc=8667717 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and possibly four<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lucas |first1=S.G. |title=Permian tetrapod extinction events |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |date=July 2017 |volume=170 |pages=31–60 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.04.008|bibcode=2017ESRv..170...31L }}</ref> extinction events in the Permian. The end of the Early Permian ([[Cisuralian]]) saw a [[Olson's Extinction|major faunal turnover]], with most lineages of primitive "[[pelycosaur]]" synapsids becoming extinct, being replaced by more advanced [[therapsids]]. The end of the [[Capitanian]] Stage of the Permian was marked by the major [[Capitanian mass extinction event]],<ref name="Day-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=Michael O. |last2=Ramezani |first2=Jahandar |last3=Bowring |first3=Samuel A. |last4=Sadler |first4=Peter M. |last5=Erwin |first5=Douglas H. |last6=Abdala |first6=Fernando |last7=Rubidge |first7=Bruce S. |title=When and how did the terrestrial mid-Permian mass extinction occur? Evidence from the tetrapod record of the Karoo Basin, South Africa |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |date=22 July 2015 |volume=282 |issue=1811 |pages=20150834 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.0834|pmid=26156768 |pmc=4528552 |bibcode=2015RSPSB.28250834D }}</ref> associated with the eruption of the [[Emeishan Traps]]. The Permian (along with the Paleozoic) ended with the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]] (colloquially known as the Great Dying), the largest mass extinction in Earth's history (which is the last of the three or four crises that occurred in the Permian), in which nearly 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial species died out, associated with the eruption of the [[Siberian Traps]]. It took well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Xiaoming |last2=Tong |first2=Jinnan |last3=Yao |first3=Huazhou |last4=Niu |first4=Zhijun |last5=Luo |first5=Mao |last6=Huang |first6=Yunfei |last7=Song |first7=Haijun |date=1 July 2015 |title=Early Triassic trace fossils from the Three Gorges area of South China: Implications for the recovery of benthic ecosystems following the Permian–Triassic extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018215001935 |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=429 |pages=100–116 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.04.008 |bibcode=2015PPP...429..100Z |access-date=20 January 2023 |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121022414/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018215001935 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="MartindaleEtAl2019">{{cite journal |last1=Martindale |first1=Rowan C. |last2=Foster |first2=William J. |last3=Velledits |first3=Felicitász |date=1 January 2019 |title=The survival, recovery, and diversification of metazoan reef ecosystems following the end-Permian mass extinction event |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217302213 |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=513 |pages=100–115 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.08.014 |bibcode=2019PPP...513..100M |s2cid=135338869 |access-date=2 December 2022 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201222936/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018217302213 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="kgs.ku.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/fossils/massExtinct.html|title=GeoKansas--Geotopics--Mass Extinctions|work=ku.edu|access-date=2009-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920085409/http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Extension/fossils/massExtinct.html|archive-date=2012-09-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> on land, ecosystems took 30 million years to recover.<ref name="SahneyBenton2008RecoveryFromProfoundExtinction">{{cite journal | last1=Sahney|first1=S. |last2= Benton|first2=M. J. | year=2008 | title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 | volume = 275 | pages = 759–65|pmid=18198148 | issue=1636 | pmc=2596898}}</ref>