Editing Advanced Computing Environment (section)

==History==
=== Formation ===
The consortium was announced on the 9th of April 1991 by [[Compaq]], [[Microsoft]], [[MIPS Technologies|MIPS Computer Systems]], [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC), and the [[Santa Cruz Operation]] (SCO).<ref>{{cite news 
 | first = 
 | last = 
 | authorlink = John Markoff
 | author = John Markoff
 | title =  New Computer Alliance Forms
 | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE2DA1438F93BA35757C0A967958260
 | work = The New York Times
 | date = 1991-04-08
 | accessdate = 2007-05-03
 | url-access = limited
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news 
 | title =  New breed of computers based on new standard UNIX/RISC software debuts: Compaq's Rod Canion says 'ACE' destined to be environment of choice for the 1990s.
 | publisher = Software Industry Report
 | url = http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/computer-software/157919-1.html
 | date = 1991-04-15
 | accessdate = 2010-02-20
}}{{Dead link|date=August 2021}}</ref> Although the consortium's definition of the [[Advanced RISC Computing]] (ARC) specification, indicating the details of an "open and scalable" hardware platform based on the [[MIPS architecture]],<ref name="arc">{{ cite book | url=ftp://ftp.linux-mips.org/pub/linux/mips/doc/ARC/riscspec.pdf | title=Advanced RISC Computing Specification Version 1.2 | publisher=MIPS Technology Inc. | date=1992 | access-date=27 November 2021 }}</ref>{{rp|pages=30|quote=ARC-compliant systems must implement the user mode instruction set defined by the MIPS I architecture. Since MIPS II is a superset of MIPS I, hardware platforms can be based on either the MIPS I or the MIPS II architecture.}} was a significant focus of the initiative, the "key force" behind it was said to be Compaq recognising that it needed to pursue a strategy with MIPS in order to compete in the emerging personal workstation market.<ref name="personalworkstation_199105">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_personal-workstation_1991-05_3_5/page/4/mode/1up | title=Editorial | magazine=Personal Workstation | date=May 1991 | access-date=27 November 2021 | last1=Peck | first1=J. Richard | pages=4 |volume=3 |issue=5 |url-access=registration}}</ref> A week prior to the ACE announcement, Compaq had entered into a relationship with Silicon Graphics Inc. (SGI) involving an investment in SGI, the payment of advance royalties, and a strategy to co-develop low-cost workstation systems targeting a price range of "about $8,000 or $7,000 for a really usable system".<ref name="digitalnews19910429_sgi">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_digital-news_1991-04-29_6_9/page/n99/mode/1up | title=SGI's McCracken: From leading edge to mass market | magazine=Digital News | date=29 April 1991 | access-date=27 November 2021 | last1=Heichler | first1=Elizabeth | pages=94 |volume=6 |issue=9}}</ref>

At the time it was widely believed that RISC-based systems would maintain a price/performance advantage over the ''ad hoc'' [[Wintel]] systems. However, it was also widely believed that [[Windows NT]] would quickly displace many other [[operating system]]s through the combined effects of a wide selection of software and the ease of building Wintel machines that supported it. ACE was formed to provide an alternative platform to Wintel, providing a viable alternative with the same advantages in terms of software support, and greater advantages in terms of performance.{{citation needed | date=November 2021 | reason=Sentiments about the rise of NT can probably be found in magazines like Byte, so maybe it would be a good source of citations.}}

The environment standardized on two hardware platforms: a personal computer platform based on the Intel 80386 and 80486 processors, and a workstation platform based on the ARC specification. To be supported by both hardware platforms were two [[operating system]]s: [[SCO UNIX]] with Open Desktop and what would become [[Windows NT]] (originally named OS/2 3.0).<ref name="computerworld19910415_abc">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/computerworld2515unse/page/6/mode/1up | title=ABCs of ACE | magazine=Computerworld | date=15 April 1991 | access-date=25 November 2021 | last1=Johnson | first1=Maryfran | pages=6 | volume=XXV |issue=15}}</ref> Other members of the consortium included [[Acer Inc.|Acer]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[Kubota]], [[NEC|NEC Corporation]], [[JFE Group|NKK]], [[Olivetti]], [[Prime Computer]], [[Pyramid Technology]], [[Siemens]], [[Silicon Graphics]], [[Sony]], [[Sumitomo]], [[Tandem Computers]], [[Wang Laboratories]], and [[Zenith Data Systems]].<ref name="computerworld19910415_lineup">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/computerworld2515unse/page/7/mode/1up | title=Outsiders don't fear ACE | magazine=Computerworld | date=15 April 1991 | access-date=25 November 2021 | last1=Savage | first1=J. A. | pages=7 | volume=XXV | issue=15 }}</ref> Besides these large companies, several [[startup company|startup companies]] built ACE-compliant systems as well.<ref name="opensystemstoday19931122_desktops">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_open-systems-today_1993-11-22_138/page/n67/mode/1up | title=NT Plus RISC Equals A New Breed Of Desktops | magazine=Open Systems Today | date=22 November 1993 | access-date=10 June 2022 | last1=Krill | first1=Paul | pages=44 }}</ref>

Each of the companies involved had their own reasons for joining the ACE effort. MIPS wanted to reverse the fragmentation seen with existing MIPS-based systems that had limited wider adoption of the architecture. Various semiconductor companies, particularly "giants" such as Toshiba and NEC, were perceived as embracing the initiative to establish themselves and to take market share from Intel.<ref name="unixreview199209_ace">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_unix-review_1992-09_10_9/page/n31/mode/2up | title=Who's Flying ACE? | magazine=UNIX Review | last1=Mangione | first1=Paul A. | date=September 1992 | access-date=10 October 2022 | pages=28–30, 32 }}</ref> DEC used the initiative as an attempt to take market share away from the [[workstation]] leader, [[Sun Microsystems]], to respond to gains by Hewlett-Packard and IBM,<ref name="computerworld19910722_dec">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/computerworld2529unse/page/29/mode/1up | title=The ACE gospel according to DEC | magazine=Computerworld | date=22 July 1991 | access-date=27 November 2021 | last1=Johnson | first1=Maryfran | pages=29 |volume=XXV |issue=29}}</ref> and to proliferate its own technologies. Compaq, Microsoft and SCO were perceived to be using it as a defensive strategy to prevent "Sun taking over the desktop and replacing Intel-architecture PCs with RISC, Unix SparcStations" with the consequent loss of opportunities for those companies.<ref name="digitalnews19910429_ace">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_digital-news_1991-04-29_6_9/page/n42/mode/1up | title=ACE plan: So what's a buyer to do? | magazine=Digital News | date=29 April 1991 | access-date=27 November 2021 | last1=Heichler | first1=Elizabeth | pages=39–40 |volume=6 |issue=9}}</ref> By joining the initiative, SCO was able to broaden its portfolio to RISC platforms alongside its existing Intel platform products, and Microsoft needed vendor support for its "Portable OS/2", later Windows NT, strategy.<ref name="digitalnews19910429_standards">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_digital-news_1991-04-29_6_9/page/n98/mode/1up | title=When are standards standard? | magazine=Digital News | date=29 April 1991 | access-date=27 November 2021 | last1=Gantz | first1=John | pages=93, 49 |volume=6 |issue=9}}</ref>

===The Apache Group===
Even prior to the announcement of the initiative, a number of companies headed by Compaq and including Siemens, Sony, Silicon Graphics, Unisys and Control Data Corporation favoured the adoption of Unix System V Release 4 ([[SVR4]]) as the means to provide portability between the MIPS and Intel architectures.<ref name="electronicnews19910401_ace">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronic-news_1991-04-01_37_1854/page/n33/mode/1up | title=MIPS Software Group Seen Taking Two Paths | magazine=Electronic News | date=1 April 1991 | access-date=11 October 2022 | last1=Robertson | first1=Jack | pages=30 }}</ref> Since SVR4 favoured [[big-endian]] operation, this subgroup of members was known as the '''Apache''' group, reportedly conceived as a pun on "Big Indian".<ref name="barton">{{ cite journal | title=From Server Room to Living Room: How open source and TiVo became a perfect match | journal=ACM Queue | date=July–August 2003 | last1=Barton | first1=Jim | doi=10.1145/945074.945076 | s2cid=15741363 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref group=note>Unrelated to the later [[Apache Software Foundation]].</ref> At that early stage, a different group known as the '''Gibraltar''' group, consisting primarily of DEC and SCO, sought to define interoperability with DEC's Ultrix operating system.<ref name="electronicnews19910401_ace"/> The Apache group later adopted the name '''MIPS ABI''' after the demise of the ACE initiative.<ref name="opensystemstoday19930329_mipsabi">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_open-systems-today_1993-03-29_120/page/n37/mode/1up | title=Vendors Support Single Mips ABI | magazine=Open Systems Today | date=29 March 1993 | access-date=12 October 2022 | last1=Wagner | first1=Mitch | pages=32 }}</ref>

The emerging rift within the ACE consortium was averted when it was decided to add support for SVR4 alongside OSF/1, thus placating the group which, by then, included Siemens, Sony, NEC, Prime Computer, Olivetti, Tandem and Pyramid among its members. Although concerns persisted about the domination of the initiative by the founding members, the introduction of SVR4 complicated the position of DEC and SCO whose involvement focused on SCO Open Desktop built on the OSF/1 kernel. However, the availability of SVR4 was regarded as a way of satisfying end-user demand, particularly by Compaq.<ref name="electronicnews19911014_ace">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronic-news_1991-10-14_37_1882/mode/1up | title=ACE Embraces Unix V.4 To Avoid Internal Strife | magazine=Electronic News | date=14 October 1991 | access-date=11 October 2022 | last1=Stedman | first1=Craig | last2=Khermouch | first2=Gerry | pages=1, 4 }}</ref>

===Dissolution===
Even so, the ACE initiative (and consortium) began to fall apart little more than a year after it started, as it became apparent that there was not a mass market for an alternative to the [[Wintel]] computing platform. The upstart platforms did not offer enough performance improvement from the incumbent PC and there were major cost disadvantages of such systems due to the low volume production. When the initiative started, RISC based systems (running at 100-200&nbsp;MHz at the time) had substantial performance advantages over [[Intel 80486]] chips (running at approximately 60&nbsp;MHz at the time), but the Pentium promised to reduce such advantages.{{citation needed|date=October 2022|reason=Some references to contemporary commentary would be desirable.}}

Compaq was the first company to leave the consortium, stating that with the departure of CEO [[Rod Canion]], one of the primary backers behind the formation of ACE, they were shifting priorities away from higher-end systems.<ref name="electronicnews19920504_ace">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronic-news_1992-05-04_38_1910/mode/1up | last1=Cassell | first1=Jonathan | last2=Khermouch | first2=Gerry | last3=Stedman | first3=Craig | last4=Zipper | first4=Stuart | title=Is ACE consortium in the hole as Compaq, SCO throw in cards? | work=Electronic News | date=4 May 1992 | access-date=25 November 2021 | pages=1, 6 |volume=3 |issue=1910 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Other factors included Compaq's ongoing restructuring amidst disappointing financial results, the accelerated introduction of the Pentium, and increasing availability of Unix software for the Intel architecture. This was followed in short order by SCO announcing that they were suspending all work on moving their version of Unix to the MIPS platform.<ref name="computerworld19920504_ace">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/computerworld2618unse/page/105/mode/1up | title=Compaq exits ACE, posts dismal quarterly revenue | magazine=Computerworld | date=4 May 1992 | access-date=25 November 2021 | last1=Hildebrand | first1=Carol | pages=105 |volume=XXVI |issue=18}}</ref> Canion's departure from Compaq had precipitated the dissolution of a technology development agreement between Compaq and SGI in early 1992 that had been established for the co-development of MIPS-based computers, although Compaq denied that this would result in the company withdrawing from the ACE consortium, which happened only months later.<ref name="computerworld19920127_compaq">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/computerworld264unse/page/4/mode/1up | title=Compaq, SGI call it quits | magazine=Computerworld | date=27 January 1992 | access-date=25 November 2021 | last1=Hildebrand | first1=Carol | pages=4 |volume=XXVI | issue=4}}</ref>

There were other potential conflicts and difficulties for the consortium. In early 1992, SGI had announced its intention to acquire MIPS Computer Systems, leading vendors such as Control Data ("the largest OEM customer of both MIPS and SGI") to consider switching to other architectures over concerns about this pending acquisition and SGI's resulting control over the target platform. DEC had released their Alpha processor and were less interested in promoting a competing architecture, indicating continued low-end support for MIPS,<ref name="electronicnews19920504_ace" /> but exhibiting a lack of commitment to future products, notably in relation to the MIPS R4000 line of processors and support for OSF/1 on the company's DECstation products.<ref name="electronicnews19920504_dec">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_electronic-news_1992-05-04_38_1910/page/n10/mode/1up | title=DEC Rethinks VAX, Station Plans | magazine=Electronic News | date=4 May 1992 | access-date=25 November 2021 | last1=Stedman | first1=Craig | pages=9 }}</ref>

Meanwhile, the accelerated delivery and anticipated performance improvements of Intel's upcoming Pentium processor, combined with more competitive pricing, made the "20 to 30 percent premium" of MIPS-based systems less attractive to vendors such as Compaq and their customers. Although ACE originally supported the [[x86]] architecture, customers were reportedly confused by an incoherent message around the different hardware and software options encompassed by the initiative. Consequently, an increased emphasis on the MIPS architecture "as an informal recognition of what the organization has really been doing all along" was envisaged, focusing more on ARC as a way of delivering MIPS-based hardware.<ref name="electronicnews19920504_ace" /> In April 1992, the ACE Executive Advisory Board refocused the initiative on systems software availability for the ARC platform.<ref name="unixreview199209_ace"/>

Intel was never itself a member of ACE, with its processor architecture having been introduced to the effort by Compaq. Since MIPS had been seeking to gain market share at Intel's expense, the initiative was a competitive threat to Intel, forcing the company "to take greater steps to accommodate its customers".<ref name="electronicnews19920504_ace" /> Indeed, one reported motivation for Compaq's involvement in ACE was to "light a fire under Intel" and get the company to produce a roadmap that was competitive enough for Compaq's customers. Intel's response was to accelerate the delivery of the Pentium and to pursue parallel development of three generations of future products ([[Pentium|P5]], [[P6 (microarchitecture)|P6]] and P7), thus providing a roadmap that could dissuade its customers from adopting RISC architectures.<ref name="unixreview199209_ace"/>