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Aggression
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==Overview== [[John Dollard|Dollard]] et al. (1939) proposed that aggression was due to [[frustration]], which was described as an unpleasant emotion resulting from any interference with achieving a rewarding goal.<ref>{{Cite book |last1= Dollard |first1=J. | last2= Doob |first2=L.W. | last3= Miller |first3=N.E. | last4= Mowrer |first4=O.H. | last5= Sears |first5=R.R. |title= Frustration and Aggression |publisher= Yale University Press |year=1939 |location= New Haven, CT}}</ref> [[Leonard Berkowitz|Berkowitz]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Berkowitz | first = L. | year = 1987 | title = Frustrations, appraisals, and aversively stimulated aggression | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59 | journal = Aggressive Behavior | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–11 | pmid = 2667009 }}</ref> extended this [[frustration–aggression hypothesis]] and proposed that it is not so much the frustration as the unpleasant emotion that evokes aggressive tendencies, and that all aversive events produce negative [[Affect (psychology)|affect]] and thereby aggressive tendencies, as well as [[fear]] tendencies. Besides [[Classical conditioning|conditioned]] stimuli, Archer categorized aggression-evoking (as well as fear-evoking) stimuli into three groups; [[pain]], [[novelty]], and [[frustration]], although he also described [[looming]], which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as "[[Intensity (physics)|intensity]]."<ref name=":Archer">{{cite book |last=Archer |first=J. |chapter=The organization of aggression and fear in vertebrates |year=1976 |editor1-first=P.P.G. |editor1-last=Bateson |editor2-first=P.H. |editor2-last=Klopfer |title=Perspectives in Ethology (Vol.2) |pages=231–298 |location=New York, NY |publisher=Plenum }}</ref> Aggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile [[behavior]] with the intention of inflicting damage or harm.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes [[affective]] (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or [[Revenge|retaliatory]] aggression that is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or [[predatory]], in which aggression is used as a means to achieve a goal.<ref>Berkowitz, L. (1993). [https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/Abstract.aspx?id=142050 Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control]. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone that insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be [[armed robbery]]. Research on [[violence]] from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2003.06.002 |title=Affective and predatory violence: A bimodal classification system of human aggression and violence |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |year=2004 |last1=McEllistrem |first1=Joseph E. }}</ref> However, some researchers question the usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and interacting causes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.273 |pmid=11212630 |title=Is it time to pull the plug on hostile versus instrumental aggression dichotomy? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=273–9 |year=2001 |last1=Bushman |first1=Brad J. |last2=Anderson |first2=Craig A. |s2cid=14223373 }}</ref> A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves [[relational aggression]] such as covert bullying and social manipulation;<ref>Ellie L. Young, David A. Nelson, America B. Hottle, Brittney Warburton, and Bryan K. Young (2010) [http://www.nasponline.org/resources/principals/Relational_Aggression_PLOct10.pdf Relational Aggression Among Students] Principal Leadership, October, copyright the National Association of Secondary School Principals</ref> whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g., [[anger]]) and mental states (e.g., [[impulsivity]], [[hostility]]).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.015 |pmid=16081158 |title=Aggression, and some related psychological constructs (anger, hostility, and impulsivity) Some comments from a research project |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=276–91 |year=2006 |last1=Ramírez |first1=J.M. |last2=Andreu |first2=J.M. |s2cid=17678048 }}</ref> Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000105491 |pmid=17914259 |title=Neurobiological Mechanisms of Aggression and Stress Coping: A Comparative Study in Mouse and Rat Selection Lines |journal=Brain, Behavior and Evolution |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=274–85 |year=2007 |last1=Veenema |first1=Alexa H. |last2=Neumann |first2=Inga D. |s2cid=25067952 }}</ref> Aggression may be [[Threat display|displayed]] in order to [[intimidate]]. The operative definition of aggression may be affected by [[morality|moral]] or [[politics|political]] views. Examples are the axiomatic moral view called the [[non-aggression principle]] and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another.<ref>{{cite news|last=Simons|first=Marlise|title=International Court May Define Aggression as Crime|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/31/world/31icc.html|date=May 2010|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Likewise in competitive [[sports]], or in the [[workplace]], some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see [[Workplace aggression]]).<ref>Nathaniel Snow [http://bleacherreport.com/articles/367924-violence-and-aggression-in-sports-an-in-depth-look-part-one Violence and Aggression in Sports: An In-Depth Look (Part One)] ([http://bleacherreport.com/articles/368875-violence-and-aggression-in-sports-an-in-depth-look-part-2 Part 2] [http://bleacherreport.com/articles/370563-violence-and-aggression-in-sports-an-in-depth-look-part-3 Part 3]) Bleacher Report, 23 March 2010</ref> Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as [[antisocial personality disorder]], [[borderline personality disorder]], and [[intermittent explosive disorder]].<ref name=":5" /> Biological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli, a product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, and a result of variables that affect personal and situational environments.<ref name="Krahé2013">{{cite book|author=Barbara Krahé|title=The Social Psychology of Aggression: 2nd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vUg5NGU2lEcC&pg=PT16|date=11 February 2013|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-136-17772-9|page=16}}</ref><ref name="Englander2003">{{cite book|author=Elizabeth Kande Englander|title=Understanding Violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AcV5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|date=30 January 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-65676-8|pages=55–86}}</ref>
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