Editing Ancient Roman architecture (section)

== Overview ==
Despite the technical developments of the Romans, which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek conception where columns were needed to support heavy beams and roofs, they were reluctant to abandon the [[classical order]]s in formal public buildings, even though these had become essentially decorative.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} However, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek [[aesthetic]] concerns and treated the orders with considerable freedom.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of [[Roman concrete]] as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone and brick. More daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the [[colonnade]] screen, a row of purely decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concrete's strength freed the [[floor plan]] from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.
[[File:Aqueduct_of_Segovia_02.jpg|thumb|[[Aqueduct of Segovia]] (1st century AD), [[Segovia]], Spain]]

Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] and [[arch]]es, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. Examples include the [[aqueducts of Rome]], the [[Baths of Diocletian]] and the [[Baths of Caracalla]], the [[List of Roman basilicas|basilica]]s and [[Colosseum]]. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in the most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the [[town wall]]s of [[Lugo]] in [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], now northern Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the Empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centers,<ref>Henig, p. 26</ref> as did the use of slave labor, both skilled and unskilled.

Especially under the empire, architecture often served a political function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general, and of specific individuals responsible for building. Roman architecture perhaps reached its peak in the reign of [[Hadrian]], whose many achievements include rebuilding the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] in its current form and leaving his mark on the landscape of northern Britain with [[Hadrian's Wall]].

=== Origins ===
While borrowing much from the preceding [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] architecture, such as the use of [[hydraulics]] and the construction of arches,<ref>Yarwood, 38</ref> Roman prestige architecture remained firmly under the spell of [[ancient Greek architecture]] and the [[classical orders]].<ref name="Henig, 27">Henig, p. 27</ref> This came initially from [[Magna Graecia]], the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and indirectly from Greek influence on the Etruscans, but after the [[Roman conquest of Greece]] directly from the best classical and [[Hellenistic]] examples in the Greek world. {{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}  The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the introduction and use of the [[triclinium]] in [[Roman villa]]s as a place and manner of dining. Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}}

=== Roman architectural revolution ===
[[File:Pantheon_Rom_1_cropped.jpg|thumb|The Roman [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]]]
The [[Roman architectural revolution]], also known as the "concrete revolution",{{sfn|DeLaine|1990|p=407}}{{sfn|Rook|1992|pp=18f.}}{{sfn|Gardner|2005|p=170}} was the widespread use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the [[arch]], [[Vault (architecture)|vault]], and [[dome]]. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, public buildings, and military facilities. These included [[Roman amphitheatre|amphitheatres]], [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]], [[Thermae|baths]], [[Roman bridge|bridges]], [[Circus (building)#List of Roman circuses|circuses]], [[List of Roman dams and reservoirs|dams]], [[List of Roman domes|domes]], [[Roman harbour|harbours]], [[Roman temple|temples]], and [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatres]].  According to [[Gottfried Semper]], Roman architecture was "the idea of world domination expressed in stone".<ref>Semper, 756</ref>

A crucial factor in this development, which saw [[List of ancient architectural records|a trend toward monumental architecture]], was the invention of [[Roman concrete]] (''opus caementicium''), which led to the liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional materials of stone and brick.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|1956}}

These enabled the building of the many [[aqueduct (bridge)|aqueducts]] throughout the [[Roman Empire]], such as the [[Aqueduct of Segovia]], the [[Pont du Gard]], and the eleven [[aqueducts of Rome]]. The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of which are still in daily use, for example, the [[Puente Romano]] at [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]] in Spain, and the [[Pont Julien]] and the bridge at [[Vaison-la-Romaine]], both in Provence, France. {{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

The [[dome]] permitted the construction of [[vaulted ceiling]]s without crossbeams and made possible large covered public spaces such as [[public baths]] and [[basilicas]], such as Hadrian's [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], the [[Baths of Diocletian]] and the [[Baths of Caracalla]], all in Rome.<ref>Yarwood, 40</ref>

The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans and implemented it in their own building.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frothingham|first=A. L.|date=1915|title=The Roman Territorial Arch|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=19|issue=2|pages=155–174|doi=10.2307/497176|jstor=497176|s2cid=191392502 |issn=0002-9114}}</ref> The use of arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that was very widely adopted in medieval Western, [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[Islamic architecture]].{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

=== Domes ===
{{main|History of Roman and Byzantine domes}}
{{further|List of Roman domes}}
[[File:Pantheon, Rome (15235769992).jpg|thumb|Dome of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], inner view]]
The Romans were the first builders in the [[history of architecture]] to realize the potential of [[dome]]s for the creation of large and well-defined interior spaces.{{sfn|Rasch|1985|p=117}} Domes were introduced in a number of Roman building types such as [[Roman temple|temples]], [[thermae]], [[palace]]s, [[mausolea]] and later also churches. Half-domes also became a favored architectural element and were adopted as [[apse]]s in Christian [[sacred architecture]].

Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century BC in [[Rome]] and the [[Roman province|provinces]] around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Along with [[vault (architecture)|vaults]], they gradually replaced the traditional [[post and lintel]] construction which makes use of the [[column]] and [[architrave]]. The construction of domes was greatly facilitated by the invention of [[Roman concrete|concrete]], a process which has been termed the [[Roman architectural revolution]].{{sfn|Lechtman|Hobbs|1986}} Their enormous dimensions remained unsurpassed until the introduction of [[structural steel]] frames in the late 19th century (see [[List of the world's largest domes]]).{{sfn|Rasch|1985|p=117}}{{sfn|Mark|Hutchinson|1986|p=24}}{{sfn|Heinle|Schlaich|1996|p=27}}