Editing Atmospheric circulation (section)

==Latitudinal circulation features==
[[Image:AtmosphCirc2.svg|thumb|right|An idealised view of three large circulation cells showing surface winds]]
[[Image:Omega-500-july-era40-1979.png|thumb|right|Vertical velocity at 500 hPa, July average. Ascent (negative values; blue to violet) is concentrated close to the solar equator; descent (positive values; red to yellow) is more diffuse but also occurs mainly in the Hadley cell.]]
The wind belts girdling the planet are organised into three cells in each hemisphere—the [[Hadley cell]], the Ferrel cell, and the polar cell. Those cells exist in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The vast bulk of the atmospheric motion occurs in the Hadley cell. The high pressure systems acting on the Earth's surface are balanced by the low pressure systems elsewhere. As a result, there is a balance of forces acting on the Earth's surface.

The [[horse latitudes]] are an area of high pressure at about 30° to 35° latitude (north or south) where winds diverge into the adjacent zones of Hadley or Ferrel cells, and which typically have light winds, sunny skies, and little precipitation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/horse-latitudes.html|title=What are the Horse Latitudes?|last=US Department of Commerce|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2019-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WyIuDwAAQBAJ&q=definition+of+horse+latitudes+in+geography&pg=PT159|title=A Dictionary of Geography|last=Monkhouse|first=F. J.|date=2017-07-12|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781351535656|language=en}}</ref>

=== Hadley cell ===
{{Main|Hadley cell}}
[[File:IntertropicalConvergenceZone-EO.jpg|thumb|right|The [[ITCZ]]'s band of clouds over the [[Eastern Pacific]] and the [[Americas]] as seen from space]]
The atmospheric circulation pattern that [[George Hadley]] described was an attempt to explain the [[trade wind]]s. The Hadley cell is a closed circulation loop which begins at the equator. There, moist air is warmed by the Earth's surface, decreases in density and rises. A similar air mass rising on the other side of the equator forces those rising air masses to move poleward. The rising air creates a low pressure zone near the equator. As the air moves poleward, it cools, becomes denser, and descends at about the [[30th parallel (disambiguation)|30th parallel]], creating a [[high-pressure area]]. The descended air then travels toward the equator along the surface, replacing the air that rose from the equatorial zone, closing the loop of the Hadley cell.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baines |first=Peter G. |date=2006 |title=The zonal structure of the Hadley circulation |journal=Advances in Atmospheric Sciences |language=en |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=869–883 |doi=10.1007/s00376-006-0869-5 |bibcode=2006AdAtS..23..869B |s2cid=122789933 |issn=0256-1530}}</ref> The poleward movement of the air in the upper part of the troposphere deviates toward the east, caused by the [[coriolis acceleration]]. At the ground level, however, the movement of the air toward the equator in the lower troposphere deviates toward the west, producing a wind from the east. The winds that flow to the west (from the east, easterly wind) at the ground level in the Hadley cell are called the trade winds.

Though the Hadley cell is described as located at the equator, it shifts northerly (to higher latitudes) in June and July and southerly (toward lower latitudes) in December and January, as a result of the Sun's heating of the surface. The zone where the greatest heating takes place is called the "[[thermal equator]]". As the southern hemisphere's summer is in December to March, the movement of the thermal equator to higher southern latitudes takes place then.

The Hadley system provides an example of a thermally direct circulation. The power of the Hadley system, considered as a heat engine, is estimated at 200 tera[[watt]]s.<ref name="RERLHadley">{{cite journal |author=Junling Huang and Michael B. McElroy|title=Contributions of the Hadley and Ferrel Circulations to the Energetics of the Atmosphere over the Past 32 Years|journal=Journal of Climate|issue=7| volume=27 |pages=2656–2666 |year=2014 |doi=10.1175/jcli-d-13-00538.1|bibcode = 2014JCli...27.2656H |s2cid=131132431 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:11857805|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Polar cell ===
{{Main|Polar vortex|Polar easterlies}}
The '''polar cell''' is a simple system with strong convection drivers. Though cool and dry relative to equatorial air, the air masses at the [[60th parallel (disambiguation)|60th parallel]] are still sufficiently warm and moist to undergo [[convection]] and drive a [[thermal loop]]. At the 60th parallel, the air rises to the tropopause (about 8&nbsp;km at this latitude) and moves poleward. As it does so, the upper-level air mass deviates toward the east.   When the air reaches the polar areas, it has cooled by radiation to space and is considerably denser than the underlying air. It descends, creating a cold, dry high-pressure area. At the polar surface level, the mass of air is driven away from the pole toward the 60th parallel, replacing the air that rose there, and the polar circulation cell is complete. As the air at the surface moves toward the equator, it deviates westwards, again as a result of the [[Coriolis effect]]. The air flows at the surface are called the polar easterlies, flowing from northeast to southwest near the north pole and from southeast to northwest near the south pole.

The outflow of air mass from the cell creates [[harmonic|harmonic wave]]s in the atmosphere known as [[Rossby wave]]s. These ultra-long waves determine the path of the polar [[jet stream]], which travels within the transitional zone between the [[tropopause]] and the [[Ferrel cell]]. By acting as a heat sink, the polar cell moves the abundant heat from the equator toward the polar regions.

The polar cell, terrain, and [[katabatic winds]] in Antarctica can create very cold conditions at the surface, for instance [[lowest temperature recorded on Earth|the lowest temperature recorded on Earth]]: −89.2&nbsp;°C at [[Vostok Station]] in Antarctica, measured in 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/momu/International_Antarctic_Weather_Forecasting_Handbook/2.1_The%20physical%20environment%20of%20the%20Antarctic.php|title=The physical environment of the Antarctic|publisher=British Antarctic Survey (BAS)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discoveringantarctica.org.uk/alevel_2_2.html |title=Regional climate variation and weather |publisher=RGS-IBG in partnership with BAS |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306052337/http://www.discoveringantarctica.org.uk/alevel_2_2.html |archive-date=2015-03-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/oymyakon-the-coldest-town/|title=Welcome to the Coldest Town on Earth|publisher=Scientific American|year=2008}}</ref>

=== Ferrel cell ===
Part of the air rising at 60° latitude diverges at high altitude toward the poles and creates the polar cell. The rest moves toward the equator where it collides at 30° latitude with the high-level air of the Hadley cell. There it subsides and strengthens the high pressure ridges beneath. A large part of the energy that drives the Ferrel cell is provided by the polar and Hadley cells circulating on either side, which drag the air of the Ferrel cell with it.<ref name="The Climate System: General Circulation and Climate Zones">{{cite web | author = Yochanan Kushnir | title = The Climate System: General Circulation and Climate Zones | date = 2000 | url = http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/ees/climate/lectures/gen_circ/index.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040822022845/http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/ees/climate/lectures/gen_circ/index.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2004-08-22 | access-date = 13 March 2012 }}</ref> 
The Ferrel cell, theorized by [[William Ferrel]] (1817–1891), is, therefore, a secondary circulation feature, whose existence depends upon the Hadley and polar cells on either side of it. It might be thought of as an [[eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddy]] created by the Hadley and polar cells.

The air of the Ferrel cell that descends at 30° latitude returns poleward at the ground level, and as it does so it deviates toward the east. In the upper atmosphere of the Ferrel cell, the air moving toward the equator deviates toward the west. Both of those deviations, as in the case of the Hadley and polar cells, are driven by conservation of angular momentum. As a result, just as the easterly Trade Winds are found below the Hadley cell, the [[Westerlies]] are found beneath the Ferrel cell.

The Ferrel cell is weak, because it has neither a strong source of heat nor a strong sink, so the airflow and temperatures within it are variable. For this reason, the mid-latitudes are sometimes known as the '''"zone of mixing."'''  The Hadley and polar cells are truly closed loops, the Ferrel cell is not, and the telling point is in the Westerlies, which are more formally known as "the Prevailing Westerlies." The easterly Trade Winds and the polar easterlies have nothing over which to prevail, as their parent circulation cells are strong enough and face few obstacles either in the form of massive terrain features or high pressure zones. The weaker Westerlies of the Ferrel cell, however, can be disrupted. The local passage of a cold front may change that in a matter of minutes, and frequently does. As a result, at the surface, winds can vary abruptly in direction. But the winds above the surface, where they are less disrupted by terrain, are essentially westerly. A low pressure zone at 60° latitude that moves toward the equator, or a high pressure zone at 30° latitude that moves poleward, will accelerate the Westerlies of the Ferrel cell. A strong high, moving polewards may bring westerly winds for days.

The Ferrel system acts as a [[heat pump]] with a [[coefficient of performance]] of 12.1, consuming kinetic energy from the Hadley and polar systems at an approximate rate of 275 terawatts.<ref name="RERLHadley" />

===Contrast between cells===
The Hadley cell and the polar cell are similar in that they are thermally direct; in other words, they exist as a direct consequence of surface temperatures. Their thermal characteristics drive the weather in their domain. The sheer volume of energy that the Hadley cell transports, and the depth of the heat sink contained within the polar cell, ensures that transient weather phenomena not only have negligible effect on the systems as a whole, but — except under unusual circumstances — they do not form. The endless chain of passing highs and lows which is part of everyday life for mid-latitude dwellers, under the Ferrel cell at latitudes between 30 and 60° latitude, is unknown above the 60th and below the 30th parallels. There are some notable exceptions to this rule; over Europe, unstable weather extends to at least the [[70th parallel north]].