Editing Battle of Red Cliffs (section)

== Background ==
{{Further|End of the Han dynasty}}
By the early 3rd century AD, the Han dynasty, now nearly four centuries old, was crumbling. Emperor [[Emperor Xian of Han|Xian]], who acceded to the throne in 189 at age eight, was a political figurehead with no control over the regional warlords. Cao Cao was one of the most powerful warlords. He hosted the emperor in his capital at [[Ye (Hebei)|Ye]], which gave him a measure of control over the emperor in addition to an air of legitimacy. In 200 he had defeated his main rival [[Yuan Shao]] at [[Battle of Guandu|Guandu]], [[End of the Han dynasty#Gradual reunification under Cao Cao (196–207)|reunifying northern China]] and giving him control of the [[North China Plain]]. In the winter of 207 he secured his northern flank by defeating the [[Wuhuan]] people at the [[Battle of White Wolf Mountain]]. Upon returning to Ye in 208, Cao Cao was appointed [[Chancellor (China)|Chancellor]] upon his own recommendation, which effectively gave him control of the imperial government.{{sfnp|Sima|de Crespigny|1969|pp=253, 465 (§n6)}}

<!-- problematic framing begins here: Cao Cao was pursuing Jingzhou specifically due to its incipient succession crisis and proximity of its capital to his. He had extracted nominal allegiance from Sun Quan and seems to have hoped a show of strength would force surrender (hence the threatening note). A foothold across the Yangtze would have been nice, no doubt, but there's not the indication he was gearing up for a major conquest campaign only to be stopped in his tracks. I'll figure out how to restate all this in a way that doesn't blandly follow the romantic tradition. -->
Cao Cao's southern campaign started shortly after in the autumn of 208.{{sfnmp|1a1=Eikenberry|1y=1994|2a1=de Crespigny|2y=2003}} The section of the Yangtze flowing through [[Jingzhou (ancient China)#Han dynasty|Jing Province]] was the first target; capturing the naval base at [[Jingzhou#History|Jiangling]] and securing naval control of the province's stretch of the Yangtze were necessary to secure access to the south.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2003}} He was opposed by the warlords [[Liu Biao]] and [[Sun Quan]]. Liu Biao, the governor of Jing, controlled the Yangtze west of the [[Han River (Hubei and Shaanxi)|Han River]]'s mouth, which roughly encompassed the territory around the city of [[Hankou District|Xiakou]] and to the south. Sun Quan controlled the Yangtze east of the Han and the southeastern territories abutting it.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=773}} [[Liu Bei]], another warlord, was in [[Fancheng District|Fancheng]], having fled to Liu Biao from the northeast after a failed plot to assassinate Cao Cao and restore imperial power.{{sfnmp|1a1=de Crespigny|1y=2007|1p=480|2a1=Sima|2a2=de Crespigny|2y=1969|2p=258}}

Initially, Cao Cao achieved rapid success. Jing was in a poor state. Its armies were exhausted by conflict with Sun Quan to the south.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2007|p=486}} Furthermore, there was political division as Liu Biao's sons, the elder Liu Qi and the younger [[Liu Cong (Han dynasty)|Liu Cong]], sought to succeed their father. Liu Cong prevailed, and Liu Qi was relegated to the [[commandery (China)|commandery]] of [[Jiangxia Commandery|Jiangxia]].{{sfnp|de Crespigny|1990|p=241}} Liu Biao died of illness only a few weeks later. Liu Cong surrendered to an advancing Cao Cao, giving him a sizeable fleet and Jiangling as a forward operating base.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|1990|pp=246, 250, 255}}

Cao Cao's advance forced Liu Bei into a disorganised southward retreat accompanied by refugees and pursued by Cao Cao's elite cavalry. Liu Bei was surrounded and decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Changban]] but escaped eastward to Xiakou, where he liaised with Sun Quan's emissary [[Lu Su]]. Historical accounts are inconsistent: Lu Su may have successfully encouraged Liu Bei to move further east to Fankou ({{lang|lzh|樊口}}, near present-day [[Ezhou]], Hubei).{{efn|name=fankou|[[Chen Shou]]'s ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'' repeatedly asserts that Liu Bei was at Xiakou.<!-- {{cn}} --> Other historical accounts support that version as well. [[Annotated Records of the Three Kingdoms|Annotations]] to the text of the ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' made nearly two centuries later by [[Pei Songzhi]] carry Xiakou in the base text and Fankou in the annotations.<!-- {{clarify}} --> That discrepancy is later reflected in contradictory passages in the ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'' by [[Sima Guang]] (and its English translation{{sfnp|de Crespigny|1990|p=248}}), which has Liu Bei "quartered at Fankou" at the same time as Zhou Yu is requesting to send troops to Xiakou, and Liu Bei "waits anxiously" in Xiakou for the reinforcements.{{sfnp|Zhang|2006|pp=231–234}}}} In any case, Liu Bei was later joined by Liu Qi and levies from Jiangxia.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|1990|p=255}}

Liu Bei's main advisor, [[Zhuge Liang]], was sent to Chaisang {{nowrap|({{lang|lzh|柴桑}})}}, present-day [[Jiujiang, Jiangxi]], to negotiate an alliance with Sun Quan against Cao Cao.{{sfnp|Sima|de Crespigny|1969|p=263}} Zhuge Liang told Sun Quan that Liu Bei and Liu Qi each had 10,000 men; these numbers may have been exaggerated, but however large a force the pair fielded was no match against Cao Cao's in an open battle.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|1990|p=205}} Sun Quan received a letter from Cao Cao prior to Zhuge Liang's arrival; in it, Cao Cao claimed to have an army of 800,000 and hinted that he wanted Sun Quan to surrender.<ref>{{harvp|Yu, ''Jiangbiao zhuan''}}: {{lang|lzh|《曹公與權書曰：「近者奉辭伐罪，旄麾南指，劉琮束手。今治水軍八十萬衆，方與將軍會獵於吳。」權得書以示羣臣，莫不嚮震失色。》}} Cited in {{harvp|Chen|Pei|429|loc={{strong|47}}.1118}}.</ref> [[Zhang Zhao (Eastern Wu)|Zhang Zhao]], Sun Quan's chief clerk, supported surrendering based on the disparity in forces. Zhuge Liang was supported by Lu Su and [[Zhou Yu]], Sun Quan's chief commander. Sun Quan agreed to the alliance; he chopped off a corner of his desk during an assembly and stated, "Anyone who still dares argue for surrender will be [treated] the same as this desk."<ref>{{harvp|Yu, ''Jiangbiao zhuan''}}: {{lang|lzh|《權拔刀斫前奏案曰：「諸將吏敢復有言當迎操者，與此案同！」》}} Cited in {{harvp|Chen|Pei|429|loc={{strong|54}}.1262}}.</ref> Zhou Yu, [[Cheng Pu]], and Lu Su were assigned 30,000 men and sent to aid Liu Bei.{{sfn|Sima|de Crespigny|1996}} With Liu Bei's 20,000 soldiers, the alliance had approximately 50,000 marines who were trained and prepared for battle.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|1990|pp=252, 255}}

Zhou Yu estimated Cao Cao's strength to be closer to 230,000.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2010|pp=183–184}} This included between 70 and 80 thousand men [[impressment|impressed]] from Ying, and whose morale and loyalty to Cao Cao were uncertain.{{sfnp|Eikenberry|1994|p=60}} Cao Cao's invasion force also included non-combatants: not only those who worked in supplies and communication, but also the wives and children of some of the soldiers.{{sfnp|de Crespigny|2010|p=184}}