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Birth order
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==Theory== [[Alfred Adler]] (1870β1937), an [[Austria]]n [[psychiatrist]], and a contemporary of [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], was one of the first [[theorist]]s to suggest that birth order influences [[Personality psychology|personality]]. He argued that birth order can leave an indelible impression on an individual's style of life, which is one's habitual way of dealing with the tasks of friendship, love, and work. According to Adler, firstborns are "dethroned" when a second child comes along, and this loss of perceived privilege and primacy may have a lasting influence on them. Middle children may feel ignored or overlooked, causing them to develop the so-called [[middle child syndrome]]. Younger and [[only child]]ren may be pampered and spoiled, which was suggested to affect their later personalities.<ref>Adler, A. (1964). ''Problems of neurosis''. New York: Harper and Row.</ref> All of this assumes what Adler believed to be a typical family situation, e.g., a [[nuclear family]] living apart from the extended family, without the children being orphaned, with average spacing between births, without twins and other multiples, and with surviving children not having severe physical, intellectual, or psychiatric disabilities. Since Adler's time, the influence of birth order on the development of [[personality development|personality]] has become a controversial issue in [[psychology]]. Among the general public, it is widely believed that personality is strongly influenced by birth order, but many psychologists dispute this. One modern theory of personality states that the [[Big Five personality traits]] of [[Openness to experience|Openness]], [[Conscientiousness]], [[Extraversion]], [[Agreeableness]], and [[Neuroticism]] represent most of the important elements of personality that can be measured. Contemporary empirical research shows that birth order does not influence the Big Five personality traits.<ref name="Rohrer2015">{{Cite journal|title = Examining the effects of birth order on personality|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date = 2015-10-19|issn = 0027-8424|pmid = 26483461|pages = 14224β14229|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1506451112|first1 = Julia M.|last1 = Rohrer|first2 = Boris|last2 = Egloff|first3 = Stefan C.|last3 = Schmukle|volume=112|issue=46|pmc=4655522|bibcode = 2015PNAS..11214224R|doi-access = free}}</ref> In his 1996 book ''Born to Rebel'', [[Frank Sulloway]] suggested that birth order had powerful effects on the [[Five factor model|Big Five]] personality traits. He argued that firstborns were much more [[conscientious]] and socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns.<ref>Sulloway, F.J. (2001). Birth Order, Sibling Competition, and Human Behavior. In Paul S. Davies and Harmon R. Holcomb, (Eds.), ''Conceptual Challenges in Evolutionary Psychology: Innovative Research Strategies''. Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 39-83. {{cite web|url= http://www.sulloway.org/Holcomb.pdf |title=Full text }} {{small|(325 KB)}}</ref> However, critics such as Fred Townsend, [[Toni Falbo]], and [[Judith Rich Harris]], argue against Sulloway's theories. A full issue of ''Politics and the Life Sciences'', dated September, 2000 but not published until 2004<ref>Harris, Judith Rich (2006), ''No Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality'' (pp. 107β112)</ref> due to legal threats from Sulloway, contains carefully and rigorously researched criticisms of Sulloway's theories and data. Subsequent large independent multi-cohort studies have revealed approximately zero effect of birth order on personality.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Examining the effects of birth order on personality|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date = 2015-11-17|issn = 0027-8424|pmc = 4655522|pmid = 26483461|pages = 14224β14229|volume = 112|issue = 46|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1506451112|first1 = Julia M.|last1 = Rohrer|first2 = Boris|last2 = Egloff|first3 = Stefan C.|last3 = Schmukle|bibcode = 2015PNAS..11214224R|doi-access = free}}</ref> In their book ''Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance across the Lifespan'', Michael E. Lamb and [[Brian Sutton-Smith]] argue that as individuals continually adjust to competing demands of [[socialization]] agents and biological tendencies, any effects of birth order may be eliminated, reinforced, or altered by later experiences.<ref>Lamb, M. E., Sutton-Smith, B. (1982).''Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance of the Lifespan.'' Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</ref>
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