Editing Brain–computer interface (section)

==History==
The history of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with [[Hans Berger]]'s discovery of the brain's electrical activity and the development of [[electroencephalography]] (EEG). In 1924 Berger was the first to record human brain activity utilizing EEG. Berger was able to identify [[neural oscillation|oscillatory activity]], such as the [[alpha wave]] (8–13&nbsp;Hz), by analyzing EEG traces.

Berger's first recording device was rudimentary. He inserted [[silver]] wires under the scalps of his patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patient's head by rubber bandages. Berger connected these sensors to a [[Lippmann electrometer|Lippmann capillary electrometer]], with disappointing results. However, more sophisticated measuring devices, such as the [[Siemens]] double-coil recording [[galvanometer]], which displayed [[voltages]] as small as 10<sup>−4</sup> volt, led to success.

Berger analyzed the interrelation of alternations in his EEG wave diagrams with [[brain diseases]]. EEGs permitted completely new possibilities for brain research.

Although the term had not yet been coined, one of the earliest examples of a working brain-machine interface was the piece ''Music for Solo Performer'' (1965) by American composer [[Alvin Lucier]]. The piece makes use of EEG and [[analog signal processing]] hardware (filters, amplifiers, and a mixing board) to stimulate acoustic percussion instruments. Performing the piece requires producing [[alpha waves]] and thereby "playing" the various instruments via loudspeakers that are placed near or directly on the instruments.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Straebel V, Thoben W | author-link1 = Volker Straebel |title = Alvin Lucier's music for solo performer: experimental music beyond sonification |url= https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de//handle/11303/7085|journal = Organised Sound |volume = 19 |issue =1 |year = 2014 |pages = 17–29|doi = 10.1017/S135577181300037X |s2cid = 62506825 }}</ref>

[[Jacques Vidal]] coined the term "BCI" and produced the first peer-reviewed publications on this topic.<ref name="Vidal1"/><ref name="Vidal2"/> He is widely recognized as the inventor of BCIs.<ref name="Wolpaw, J.R 2012">Wolpaw, J.R. and Wolpaw, E.W. (2012). "Brain-Computer Interfaces: Something New Under the Sun". In: ''Brain-Computer Interfaces: Principles and Practice'', Wolpaw, J.R. and Wolpaw (eds.), E.W. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolpaw JR, Birbaumer N, McFarland DJ, Pfurtscheller G, Vaughan TM | title = Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control | journal = Clinical Neurophysiology | volume = 113 | issue = 6 | pages = 767–791 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12048038 | doi = 10.1016/s1388-2457(02)00057-3 | s2cid = 17571592 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Allison BZ, Wolpaw EW, Wolpaw JR | title = Brain-computer interface systems: progress and prospects | journal = Expert Review of Medical Devices | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 463–474 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17605682 | doi = 10.1586/17434440.4.4.463 | s2cid = 4690450 }}</ref> A review pointed out that Vidal's 1973 paper stated the "BCI challenge"<ref name="Bozinovski1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bozinovski S, Bozinovska L | year = 2019 | title = Brain-computer interface in Europe: The thirtieth anniversary | journal = Automatika | volume = 60 | issue = 1| pages = 36–47 | doi = 10.1080/00051144.2019.1570644 | doi-access = free }}</ref> of controlling external objects using EEG signals, and especially use of [[Contingent negative variation|Contingent Negative Variation (CNV)]] potential as a challenge for BCI control. Vidal's 1977 experiment was the first application of BCI after his 1973 BCI challenge. It was a noninvasive EEG (actually [[Evoked potential|Visual Evoked Potentials]] (VEP)) control of a cursor-like graphical object on a computer screen. The demonstration was movement in a maze.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vidal |first1=Jacques J. |title=Real-time detection of brain events in EEG |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |date=1977 |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=633–641 |doi=10.1109/PROC.1977.10542 |s2cid=7928242 |url=http://web.cs.ucla.edu/~vidal/Real_Time_Detection.pdf| url-status=dead |access-date=4 November 2022 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719005915/http://web.cs.ucla.edu/~vidal/Real_Time_Detection.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2015}}</ref>

1988 was the first demonstration of noninvasive EEG control of a physical object, a robot. The experiment demonstrated EEG control of multiple start-stop-restart cycles of movement, along an arbitrary trajectory defined by a line drawn on a floor. The line-following behavior was the default robot behavior, utilizing autonomous intelligence and an autonomous energy source.<ref>S. Bozinovski, M. Sestakov, L. Bozinovska: Using EEG alpha rhythm to control a mobile robot, In G. Harris, C. Walker (eds.) ''Proc. IEEE Annual Conference of Medical and Biological Society'', p. 1515-1516, New Orleans, 1988</ref><ref>S. Bozinovski: Mobile robot trajectory control: From fixed rails to direct bioelectric control, In O. Kaynak (ed.) ''Proc. IEEE Workshop on Intelligent Motion Control'', p. 63-67, Istanbul, 1990</ref><ref>M. Lebedev: Augmentation of sensorimotor functions with neural prostheses. Opera Medica and Physiologica. Vol. 2 (3): 211-227, 2016</ref><ref>M. Lebedev, M. Nicolelis: Brain-machine interfaces: from basic science to neuroprostheses and neurorehabilitation, Physiological Review 97:737-867, 2017</ref>

In 1990, a report was given on a closed loop, bidirectional, adaptive BCI controlling a computer buzzer by an anticipatory brain potential, the Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential.<ref>L. Bozinovska, G. Stojanov, M. Sestakov, S. Bozinovski: CNV pattern recognition: a step toward a cognitive wave observation, In L. Torres, E. Masgrau, E. Lagunas (eds.) Signal Processing V: Theories and Applications, Proc. EUSIPCO-90: Fifth European Signal Processing Conference, Elsevier, p. 1659-1662, Barcelona, 1990</ref><ref>L. Bozinovska, S. Bozinovski, G. Stojanov, Electroexpectogram: experimental design and algorithms, In Proc IEEE International Biomedical Engineering Days, p. 55-60, Istanbul, 1992</ref> The experiment described how an expectation state of the brain, manifested by CNV, used a feedback loop to control the S2 buzzer in the S1-S2-CNV paradigm. The resulting cognitive wave representing the expectation learning in the brain was termed Electroexpectogram (EXG). The CNV brain potential was part of Vidal's 1973 challenge.

Studies in the 2010s suggested neural stimulation's potential to restore functional connectivity and associated behaviors through modulation of molecular mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Miranda RA, Casebeer WD, Hein AM, Judy JW, Krotkov EP, Laabs TL, Manzo JE, Pankratz KG, Pratt GA, Sanchez JC, Weber DJ, Wheeler TL, Ling GS | display-authors = 6 | title = DARPA-funded efforts in the development of novel brain-computer interface technologies | journal = Journal of Neuroscience Methods | volume = 244 | pages = 52–67 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25107852 | doi = 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.07.019 | s2cid = 14678623 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jacobs M, Premji A, Nelson AJ | title = Plasticity-inducing TMS protocols to investigate somatosensory control of hand function | journal = Neural Plasticity | volume = 2012 | pages = 350574 | date = 16 May 2012 | pmid = 22666612 | pmc = 3362131 | doi = 10.1155/2012/350574 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This opened the door for the concept that BCI technologies may be able to restore function.

Beginning in 2013, [[DARPA]] funded BCI technology through the BRAIN initiative, which supported work out of teams including [[University of Pittsburgh Medical Center]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Fox |first=Maggie |title=Brain Chip Helps Paralyzed Man Feel His Fingers |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/brain-chip-helps-paralyzed-man-feel-his-fingers-n665881 |website=NBC News |date=October 13, 2016 |access-date=23 March 2021}}</ref> Paradromics,<ref>{{cite web |last=Hatmaker |first=Taylor |title=DARPA awards $65 million to develop the perfect, tiny two-way brain-computer inerface |url= https://techcrunch.com/2017/07/10/darpa-nesd-grants-paradromics/ |website=Tech Crunch |date=July 10, 2017 |access-date=23 March 2021}}</ref> Brown,<ref>{{cite news |first=Kevin |last=Stacey |title=Brown to receive up to $19M to engineer next-generation brain-computer interface |url=https://www.brown.edu/news/2017-07-10/neurograins |website=Brown University |date=July 10, 2017 |access-date=23 March 2021}}</ref> and Synchron.<ref>{{cite web |title=Minimally Invasive "Stentrode" Shows Potential as Neural Interface for Brain |url= https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2016-02-08 |website=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) |date=2016-02-08 |access-date=23 March 2021}}</ref>