Editing CERN (section)

== History ==
[[File:Cernfounders.png|thumb|upright=0.95|The 12 founding member states of CERN in 1954.<ref name="foundation">{{cite web|url=https://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/About/History54-en.html |title=CERN.ch |publisher=CERN |access-date=20 November 2010}}</ref>]]
The convention establishing CERN<ref name=":0" /> was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14692480|title=History of CERN|publisher=North-Holland Physics Pub|last1=Hermann |first1=Armin |last2=Belloni |first2=Lanfranco |last3=Krige |first3=John |others=European Organization for Nuclear Research |year=1987|isbn=0-444-87037-7|location=Amsterdam|pages=|oclc=14692480}}</ref> The acronym CERN originally represented the French words for {{lang|fr|Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire}} ('European Council for Nuclear Research'), which was a provisional council for building the laboratory, established by 12 European governments in 1952. During these early years, the council worked at the [[University of Copenhagen]] under the direction of [[Niels Bohr]] before moving to its present site near Geneva.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krige|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzE9AQAAIAAJ&q=oern|title=From the Provisional Organization to the Permanent CERN, May 1952 – September 1954: A survey of developments|publisher=Study Team for CERN History|year=1985|pages=5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Dakin|first=S. A. ff.|date=2 November 1954|title=Conflict between title and initials of the Organization|url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/59712/files/Memo%202%20November%201954%20.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cds.cern.ch/record/59712/files/Memo%202%20November%201954%20.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the provisional council was dissolved, even though the name changed to the current {{lang|fr|Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire}} ('European Organization for Nuclear Research') in 1954.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krige|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzE9AQAAIAAJ&q=oern|title=From the Provisional Organization to the Permanent CERN, May 1952 – September 1954: A survey of developments|publisher=Study Team for CERN History|year=1985|pages=5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Dakin|first=S. A. ff.|date=2 November 1954|title=Conflict between title and initials of the Organization|url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/59712/files/Memo%202%20November%201954%20.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cds.cern.ch/record/59712/files/Memo%202%20November%201954%20.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Lew Kowarski]], a former director of CERN, when the name was changed, the abbreviation could have become the awkward OERN,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fraser|first=Gordon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwGhmwYyDLQC&q=%22OERN%22+heisenberg&pg=PA229|title=The Quantum Exodus: Jewish Fugitives, the Atomic Bomb, and the Holocaust|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-162751-4|language=en}}</ref> and [[Werner Heisenberg]] said that this could "still be CERN even if the name is [not]".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-03-20|title=Lew Kowarski – Session VI|url=https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4717-6|access-date=2021-02-08|website=www.aip.org|language=en}}</ref>

CERN's first president was Sir [[Ben Lockspeiser|Benjamin Lockspeiser]]. [[Edoardo Amaldi]] was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, and the first Director-General (1954) was [[Felix Bloch]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/1730968 |title=People and things: Felix Bloch |access-date=1 September 2015 |journal=CERN Courier |year=1983 }}</ref>

The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]], but was soon applied to [[high-energy physics|higher-energy physics]], concerned mainly with the study of interactions between [[subatomic particle]]s. Therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the '''European laboratory for particle physics''' ({{lang|fr|Laboratoire européen pour la physique des particules}}), which better describes the research being performed there.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source; This name form was clearly used in the late 80s and in the 1990s, but has been less common after year 2000.|date=February 2021}}

=== Founding members ===
At the sixth session of the CERN Council in Paris from 29 June to 1 July 1953, the convention establishing the organization was signed, subject to ratification, by 12 states. The convention was gradually ratified by the 12 founding Member States: Belgium, Denmark, France, the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]], Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and [[SFR Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/17750/|title=6th Session of the European Council for Nuclear Research, 29–30 Jun 1953: Minutes |publisher=CERN | location=Paris|date=28 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Scientific achievements ===
Several important achievements in particle physics have been made through experiments at CERN. They include:
* 1973: The discovery of [[neutral current]]s in the [[Gargamelle]] bubble chamber;<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-12779-7|title=Prestigious discoveries at CERN|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|year=2003|isbn=978-3-642-05855-4|editor-last=Cashmore|editor-first=Roger|location=Berlin & Heidelberg|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-12779-7|editor-last2=Maiani|editor-first2=Luciano|editor-last3=Revol|editor-first3=Jean-Pierre}}</ref>
* 1983: The discovery of [[W and Z bosons]] in the [[UA1 experiment|UA1]] and [[UA2 experiment]]s;<ref name=":1" />
* 1989: The determination of the number of light [[neutrino]] families at the [[Large Electron–Positron Collider]] (LEP) operating on the Z boson peak;<ref>{{Citation|last=Mele|first=Salvatore|title=60 Years of CERN Experiments and Discoveries|chapter=The measurement of the number of light neutrino species at LEP|chapter-url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789814644150_0004|series=Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics|year=2015|volume=23|pages=89–106|publication-date=2015|publisher=World Scientific|language=en|doi=10.1142/9789814644150_0004|isbn=978-981-4644-14-3|url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/2103251|access-date=2021-02-23}}</ref>
* 1995: The first creation of [[antihydrogen]] atoms in the [[PS210 experiment]];<ref>{{Cite book|last=Close|first=Frank|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLRwDwAAQBAJ&q=first++1995+antihydrogen&pg=PA93|title=Antimatter|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-883191-4|pages=93–96|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baur|first1=G.|last2=Boero|first2=G.|last3=Brauksiepe|first3=A.|last4=Buzzo|first4=A.|last5=Eyrich|first5=W.|last6=Geyer|first6=R.|last7=Grzonka|first7=D.|last8=Hauffe|first8=J.|last9=Kilian|first9=K.|last10=LoVetere|first10=M.|last11=Macri|first11=M.|year=1996|title=Production of antihydrogen|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0370269396000056|journal=Physics Letters B|language=en|volume=368|issue=3|pages=251–258|doi=10.1016/0370-2693(96)00005-6|bibcode=1996PhLB..368..251B}}</ref>
* 1995–2005: Precision measurement of the Z lineshape,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=The ALEPH Collaboration |author2=The DELPHI Collaboration |author3=The L3 Collaboration |author4=The OPAL Collaboration |author5=The SLD Collaboration |author6=The LEP Electroweak Working Group |author7=The SLD Electroweak Group |author8=The SLD Heavy Flavour Group |title=Precision electroweak measurements on the Z resonance |journal=Physics Reports |date=May 2006 |volume=427 |issue=5–6 |pages=257–454 |doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2005.12.006 |arxiv=hep-ex/0509008 |bibcode=2006PhR...427..257A |s2cid=119482321 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370157305005119 |access-date=11 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Blondel |first1=Alain |last2=Mariotti |first2=Chiara |last3=Pieri |first3=Marco |last4=Wells |first4=Pippa |title=LEP's electroweak leap |url=https://cerncourier.com/a/leps-electroweak-leap/ |access-date=11 April 2023 |work=CERN Courier |date=11 September 2019}}</ref> based predominantly on LEP data collected on the Z resonance from 1990 to 1995;
* 1999: The discovery of direct [[CP violation]] in the [[NA48 experiment]];<ref name="NA48">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=V. |title=A new measurement of direct CP violation in two pion decays of the neutral kaon|journal=[[Physics Letters B]] |volume=465 |issue=1–4 |pages=335–348 |year=1999 |arxiv=hep-ex/9909022 |bibcode = 1999PhLB..465..335F |doi = 10.1016/S0370-2693(99)01030-8 |display-authors=1 |last2=Lai |first2=A. |last3=Marras |first3=D. |last4=Musa |first4=L. |last5=Bevan |first5=A.J. |last6=Gershon |first6=T.J. |last7=Hay |first7=B. |last8=Moore |first8=R.W. |last9=Moore |first9=K.N.|last10=Munday |first10=D.J. |last11=Needham |first11=M.D. |last12=Parker |first12=M.A. |last13=Takach |first13=S.F. |last14=White |first14=T.O. |last15=Wotton |first15=S.A. |last16=Barr |first16=G. |last17=Blümer |first17=H. |last18=Bocquet |first18=G. |last19=Bremer |first19=J. |last20=Ceccucci |first20=A. |last21=Cogan |first21=J. |last22=Cundy |first22=D. |last23=Doble |first23=N. |last24=Funk |first24=W. |last25=Gatignon |first25=L. |last26=Gianoli |first26=A. |last27=Gonidec |first27=A. |last28=Govi |first28=G. |last29=Grafström |first29=P. |last30=Kesseler |first30=G. |hdl=11577/2490003 |url=https://na48.web.cern.ch/NA48/Welcome/papers/eprime97/eprime97.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://na48.web.cern.ch/NA48/Welcome/papers/eprime97/eprime97.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|citeseerx=10.1.1.34.322 |s2cid=15277360 }}</ref>
* 2000: The Heavy Ion Programme discovered a new state of matter, [[quark–gluon plasma]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=New State of Matter created at CERN|url=https://home.cern/news/press-release/cern/new-state-matter-created-cern|access-date=2021-07-30|website=CERN|language=en}}</ref>
* 2010: The isolation of 38 atoms of [[antihydrogen]];<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reich|first=Eugenie Samuel|year=2010|title=Antimatter held for questioning|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=468|issue=7322|pages=355|doi=10.1038/468355a|pmid=21085144|bibcode=2010Natur.468..355R|s2cid=4428830|issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Antihydrogen">{{cite news |author=Shaikh |first=Thair |date=18 November 2010 |title=Scientists capture antimatter atoms in particle breakthrough |publisher=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/11/18/switzerland.cern.antimatter/?hpt=Mid}}</ref>
* 2011: Maintaining [[antihydrogen]] for over 15 minutes;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matson|first=John|year=2011|title=Antimatter trapped for more than 15 minutes|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2011.349|journal=Nature|language=en|pages=news.2011.349|doi=10.1038/news.2011.349|issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Amos |first=Jonathan |date=6 June 2011 |title=Antimatter atoms are corralled even longer |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-13666892 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
* 2012: A [[boson]] with mass around 125 GeV/c<sup>2</sup> consistent with the long-sought [[Higgs boson]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Randall |first=Lisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcL1D2vlMKoC |title=Higgs Discovery: The Power of Empty Space |year=2012 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4481-6116-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aad |first1=G. |last2=Abajyan |first2=T. |last3=Abbott |first3=B. |last4=Abdallah |first4=J. |last5=Abdel Khalek |first5=S. |last6=Abdelalim |first6=A.A. |last7=Abdinov |first7=O. |last8=Aben |first8=R. |last9=Abi |first9=B. |last10=Abolins |first10=M. |last11=AbouZeid |first11=O.S. |year=2012 |title=Observation of a new particle in the search for the Standard Model Higgs boson with the ATLAS detector at the LHC |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S037026931200857X |journal=Physics Letters B |language=en |volume=716 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2012.08.020 |arxiv=1207.7214 |bibcode=2012PhLB..716....1A |s2cid=119169617}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |year=2012 |title=Observation of a new boson at a mass of 125 GeV with the CMS experiment at the LHC |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269312008581 |journal=Physics Letters B |language=en |volume=716 |issue=1 |pages=30–61 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2012.08.021 |issn=0370-2693 |last1=Chatrchyan |first1=S. |last2=Khachatryan |first2=V. |last3=Sirunyan |first3=A.M. |last4=Tumasyan |first4=A. |last5=Adam |first5=W. |last6=Aguilo |first6=E. |last7=Bergauer |first7=T. |last8=Dragicevic |first8=M. |last9=Erö |first9=J. |last10=Fabjan |first10=C. |last11=Friedl |first11=M. |last12=Frühwirth |first12=R. |last13=Ghete |first13=V.M. |last14=Hammer |first14=J. |last15=Hoch |first15=M. |last16=Hörmann |first16=N. |last17=Hrubec |first17=J. |last18=Jeitler |first18=M. |last19=Kiesenhofer |first19=W. |last20=Knünz |first20=V. |last21=Krammer |first21=M. |last22=Krätschmer |first22=I. |last23=Liko |first23=D. |last24=Majerotto |first24=W. |last25=Mikulec |first25=I. |last26=Pernicka |first26=M. |last27=Rahbaran |first27=B. |last28=Rohringer |first28=C. |last29=Rohringer |first29=H. |last30=Schöfbeck |first30=R. |arxiv=1207.7235 |bibcode=2012PhLB..716...30C |display-authors=1}}</ref>

In September 2011, CERN attracted media attention when the [[OPERA experiment|OPERA Collaboration]] reported the detection of possibly [[Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly|faster-than-light neutrinos]].<ref>Adrian Cho, [https://www.science.org/content/article/neutrinos-travel-faster-light-according-one-experiment "Neutrinos Travel Faster Than Light, According to One Experiment"], [[Science (journal)#Availability|Science NOW]], 22 September 2011.</ref> Further tests showed that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected [[GPS]] synchronization cable.<ref name="OPERAanomaly">{{cite web|url=https://press.cern/press-releases/2011/09/opera-experiment-reports-anomaly-flight-time-neutrinos-cern-gran-sasso|title=OPERA experiment reports anomaly in flight time of neutrinos from CERN to Gran Sasso |publisher=CERN |access-date=12 November 2016}}</ref>

The 1984 [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] was awarded to [[Carlo Rubbia]] and [[Simon van der Meer]] for the developments that resulted in the discoveries of the W and Z bosons.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=New Scientist|last=Sutton|first=Christine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mba_9vGmyesC&q=nobel+prize+rubbia+meer&pg=PA10|title=CERN scoops up the Nobel physics prize|date=1984-10-25|publisher=Reed Business Information|language=en}}</ref> The 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher [[Georges Charpak]] "for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the [[multiwire proportional chamber]]". The 2013 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to [[François Englert]] and [[Peter Higgs]] for the theoretical description of the Higgs mechanism in the year after the Higgs boson was found by CERN experiments.

==== Computer science ====
{{See also|History of the Internet|History of the World Wide Web|Protocol Wars}}
{{multiple image
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| caption1 = This [[NeXT Computer]] used by British scientist [[Sir Tim Berners-Lee]] at CERN became the first [[Web server]].
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| caption2 = This [[Cisco Systems]] router at CERN was one of the first [[IP router]]s deployed in Europe.
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| caption3 = A plaque at CERN commemorating the invention of the [[World Wide Web]] by [[Tim Berners-Lee]] and [[Robert Cailliau]]
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CERN pioneered the introduction of [[TCP/IP]] for its [[intranet]], beginning in 1984. This played an influential role in the adoption of the TCP/IP in Europe (see [[History of the Internet]] and [[Protocol Wars]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Segal |first=Ben |date=1995 |title=A short history of Internet protocols at CERN |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245061001 |journal=CERN}}</ref>

In 1989, the [[World Wide Web]] was invented at CERN by [[Tim Berners-Lee]]. Based on the concept of [[hypertext]], the idea was designed to facilitate information sharing between researchers.<ref name="TBL Web Proposal">{{cite web |last1=Berners-Lee |first1=Tim |title=Information Management: A Proposal |url=https://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401051011/https://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html |archive-date=1 April 2010 |access-date=12 February 2022 |website=w3.org |publisher=The World Wide Web Consortium}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-30 |title=The World's First Web Site |url=https://www.history.com/news/the-worlds-first-web-site |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819131610/https://www.history.com/news/the-worlds-first-web-site |archive-date=19 August 2023 |access-date=2023-08-19 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> This stemmed from Berners-Lee's earlier work at CERN on a database named [[ENQUIRE]]. A colleague, [[Robert Cailliau]], became involved in 1990.<ref>{{Cite book|last=O'Regan|first=Gerard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oSq5BAAAQBAJ|title=Giants of Computing: A Compendium of Select, Pivotal Pioneers|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4471-5340-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=O'Regan|first=Gerard|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-02619-6|title=The Innovation in Computing Companion: A Compendium of Select, Pivotal Inventions|publisher=Springer International Publishing|year=2018|isbn=978-3-030-02618-9|location=Cham|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-02619-6|s2cid=54457158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Scott|first=Virginia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVz06fnwJvUC&q=ENQUIRE+cern+web&pg=PA19|title=Google|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2008|isbn=978-0-313-35127-3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://public.web.cern.ch/Public/en/About/WebStory-en.html |title=CERN.ch |publisher=CERN |access-date=20 November 2010}}</ref> 

In 1995, Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Robert Cailliau|url=https://awards.acm.org/award_winners/cailliau_5353144|access-date=2021-02-28|website=awards.acm.org|language=en}}</ref> A copy of the first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the [[World Wide Web Consortium]]'s website as a historical document.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.w3.org/History/19921103-hypertext/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html |title=The World Wide Web project |publisher=W3C |access-date=20 November 2010}}</ref> The first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone. It became the dominant way through which most users interact with the [[Internet]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Ari-Pekka |first1=Hameri |last2=Nordberg |first2=Markus |date=1997 |title=From Experience: Linking Available Resources and Technologies to Create a Solution for Document Sharing The Early Years of the WWW |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/371101/files/from%20experience_linking%20avalble%20resources.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrew |first=Oram |date=2021 |title=Open, Simple, Generative: Why the Web is the Dominant Internet Application |url=https://www.lpi.org/blog/2021/08/17/open-simple-generative-why-web-dominant-internet-application/}}</ref>

More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of [[grid computing]], hosting projects including the [[Enabling Grids for E-sciencE]] (EGEE) and [[LHC Computing Grid]]. It also hosts the [[CERN Internet Exchange Point]] (CIXP), one of the two main [[internet exchange point]]s in Switzerland. {{As of|2022}}, CERN employs ten times more engineers and technicians than research physicists.<ref>{{cite web|title=Engineering at CERN|url=https://home.cern/science/engineering|website=home.cern}}</ref>