Editing Carnation Revolution (section)

=={{anchor|Context}}Background==
By the 1970s, nearly a half-century of authoritarian rule weighed on Portugal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sousa |first=Helena |title=Recent Political History of Portugal |url=http://www.bocc.ubi.pt/pag/sousa-helena-chap-4-history.html |access-date=April 25, 2022 |website=[[University of Beira Interior]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010421220903/http://www.bocc.ubi.pt/pag/sousa-helena-chap-4-history.html |archive-date=21 April 2001 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[28 May 1926 coup d'état]] implemented an authoritarian regime incorporating [[social Catholicism]] and [[integralism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pinto |first1=António Costa |author-link=António Costa Pinto |last2=Rezola |first2=Maria Inácia |date=2007 |title=Political Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and Salazar's New State in Portugal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14690760701321320 |journal=Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=353–368 |doi=10.1080/14690760701321320 |s2cid=143494119 |issn=1469-0764 |oclc=4893762881}}</ref> In 1933, the regime was renamed the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] (New State).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Emma Slattery |date=30 September 2021 |title=Your guide to the Carnation Revolution |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/carnation-revolution-guide-facts-coup-portugal-estado-novo-regime/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=25 April 2022 |website=[[History Extra]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702170539/https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/carnation-revolution-guide-facts-coup-portugal-estado-novo-regime/ |archive-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] served as Prime Minister until 1968.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 24, 2022 |title=António de Oliveira Salazar: prime minister of Portugal |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antonio-de-Oliveira-Salazar |access-date=April 25, 2022 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>

In [[sham election]]s the government candidate usually ran unopposed, while the opposition used the limited political freedoms allowed during the brief election period to protest, withdrawing their candidates before the election to deny the regime [[political legitimacy]].

The Estado Novo's political police, the [[PIDE]] (Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado, later the DGS, Direcção-Geral de Segurança and originally the PVDE, Polícia de Vigilância e Defesa do Estado), [[Persecution|persecuted]] opponents of the regime, who were often tortured, imprisoned or killed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Silva |first=Lara |date=April 25, 2022 |title=25 Things To Know About Portugal's Carnation Revolution |url=https://www.portugal.com/history-and-culture/25-things-to-know-about-portugals-carnation-revolution/ |access-date=April 25, 2022 |website=Portugal.com}}</ref>

In 1958, General [[Humberto Delgado]], a former member of the regime, stood against the regime's presidential candidate, [[Américo Tomás]], and refused to allow his name to be withdrawn. Tomás won the election amidst claims of widespread electoral fraud, and the Salazar government abandoned the practice of popularly electing the president and gave the task to the [[National Assembly of Portugal|National Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oliveira |first=Pedro Aires |date=2011 |title=Generous Albion? Portuguese anti-Salazarists in the United Kingdom, c. 1960––74 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/427/article/815131 |journal=Portuguese Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=175–207 |doi=10.1353/port.2011.0005 |issn=2222-4270 |oclc=9681167242}}</ref>

Portugal's Estado Novo government remained neutral in the [[World War II|Second World War]], and was initially tolerated by its [[NATO]] post-war partners due to its [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] stance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Portugal and NATO |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/declassified_162352.htm |access-date=April 25, 2022 |website=[[NATO]]}}</ref> As the [[Cold War]] developed, [[Western Bloc]] and [[Eastern Bloc]] states vied with each other in supporting [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] in the [[Portuguese colonies]], leading to the 1961–1974 [[Portuguese Colonial War]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schliehe |first=Nils |date=2019-05-01 |title=West German Solidarity Movements and the Struggle for the Decolonization of Lusophone Africa |url=https://journals.openedition.org/rccs/8723 |journal=Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais |language=en |issue=118 |pages=173–194 |doi=10.4000/rccs.8723 |s2cid=155462211 |issn=0254-1106 |oclc=8514209518|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Salazar had a [[stroke]] in 1968, and was replaced as [[Prime Minister of Portugal|prime minister]] by [[Marcelo Caetano]], who adopted a slogan of "continuous evolution", suggesting reforms, such as a monthly [[pension]] to rural workers who had never contributed to Portugal's [[social security]]. Caetano's Primavera Marcelista (Marcelist Spring) included greater political tolerance and [[freedom of the press]], and was seen as an opportunity for the opposition to gain [[Concession (politics)|concessions]] from the regime. In 1969, Caetano authorised the country's first democratic labour union movement since the 1920s. However, after the elections of [[1969 Portuguese legislative election|1969]] and [[1973 Portuguese legislative election|1973]], hard-liners in the government and the military pushed back against Caetano, with [[political repression]] against [[Communism|communists]] and [[Anti-colonialism|anti-colonialists]].{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

===Economic conditions===
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2017}}
The Estado Novo regime's economic policy encouraged the formation of large [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerates]]. The regime maintained a policy of [[corporatism]] which resulted in the placement of much of the economy in the hands of conglomerates including those founded by the families of [[António Champalimaud]] ([[Banco Totta & Açores]], [[Banco Pinto & Sotto Mayor]], [[Secil]], [[Cimpor]]), [[José Manuel de Mello]] ([[Companhia União Fabril]]), [[Américo Amorim]] ([[Corticeira Amorim]]) and the dos Santos family ([[Jerónimo Martins]]).{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

One of the largest was the Companhia União Fabril (CUF), with a wide range of interests including cement, petro and agro chemicals, textiles, beverages, naval and electrical engineering, [[insurance]], banking, paper, tourism and mining, with branches, plants and projects throughout the Portuguese Empire.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Other medium-sized family companies specialised in textiles (such as those in [[Covilhã]] and the northwest), ceramics, porcelain, glass and crystal (such as those in [[Alcobaça, Portugal|Alcobaça]], [[Caldas da Rainha]] and [[Marinha Grande]]), engineered wood (such as [[SONAE]], near [[Porto]]), canned fish ([[Algarve]] and the northwest), fishing, food and beverages (liqueurs, beer and [[port wine]]), tourism (in [[Estoril]], [[Cascais]], [[Sintra]] and the [[Algarve]]) and agriculture (the [[Alentejo]], known as the [[breadbasket]] of Portugal) by the early-1970s. Rural families engaged in agriculture and forestry.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Income from the colonies came from resource extraction, of oil, coffee, cotton, cashews, coconuts, timber, minerals (including diamonds), metals (such as iron and aluminium), bananas, citrus, tea, sisal, beer, cement, fish and other seafood, beef and textiles.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} [[Labour unions]] were subject to severe restrictions,<ref>{{Cite web |title=O movimento sindical durante o Estado Novo: estado actual da investigação |url=https://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/3359.pdf |website=Universidade do Porto}}</ref> and [[minimum wage]] laws were not enforced. Starting in the 1960s, the outbreak of colonial wars in Africa set off significant social changes, among them the rapid incorporation of women into the labour market.

===Colonial war===
{{Main|Portuguese Colonial War}}
[[File:Portuguese colonial war blank map.svg|thumb|alt=Colour-coded map of Portugal and Africa|Portuguese colonies in Africa under the ''Estado Novo'' regime]]
[[File:AssaltonaMatadaSanga.jpg|thumb|alt=Armed soldier in a helicopter|[[Portuguese Air Force|PoAF]] helicopter in Africa]]

Independence movements began in the African colonies of [[Portuguese Mozambique]], [[Portuguese Congo]], [[Portuguese Angola]], and [[Portuguese Guinea]]. The Salazar and Caetano regimes responded with diverting more and more of Portugal's [[National budget|budget]] to colonial administration and [[military expenditure]], and the country became increasingly [[International isolation|isolated]] from the rest of the world, facing increasing internal dissent, [[arms embargo]]es and other [[international sanctions]].<ref name="Adrian Hastings">{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1310333/Adrian-Hastings.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | title=Adrian Hastings | date=26 June 2001}}</ref>

By the early-1970s, the [[Portuguese Armed Forces|Portuguese military]] was overstretched and there was no political solution in sight. Although the number of [[Casualty (person)|casualties]] was relatively small, the war had entered its second decade; Portugal faced criticism from the international community, and was becoming increasingly isolated. In 1973 the UN General Assembly passed a resolution calling for Portugal's immediate withdrawal from Guinea.<ref name="Matos">{{cite book |last1=Matos |first1=José Augusto |last2=Oliveira |first2=Zélia |title=Carnation Revolution. Volume 1: The Road to the Coup that changed Portugal, 1974 |date=October 2023 |publisher=Helion & Co. Ltd. |location=Warwick |isbn=9781804513668}}</ref> Atrocities such as the [[Wiriyamu Massacre]] undermined the war's popularity and the government's diplomatic position, although details of the massacre are still disputed.<ref name="Adrian Hastings"/><ref>Gomes, Carlos de Matos, Afonso, Aniceto. Oa anos da Guerra Colonial&nbsp;– Wiriyamu, De Moçambique para o mundo. Lisboa, 2010.</ref><ref>Arslan Humbarachi & Nicole Muchnik, ''Portugal's African Wars'', N.Y., 1974.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cabrita |first=Felícia |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/232301193 |title=Massacres em África |publisher=Esfera dos livros |year=2008 |isbn=978-989-626-089-7 |edition=1a |location=Lisboa |pages=243–282 |oclc=232301193}}</ref><ref name=Westfall>Westfall, William C., Jr., Major, [[United States Marine Corps]], ''Mozambique-Insurgency Against Portugal, 1963–1975'', 1984. Retrieved on 10 March 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907626,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918214935/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907626,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=18 September 2008 | magazine=Time | title=Mozambique: Mystery Massacre | date=30 July 1973}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1973/jul/10/portuguese-prime-minister-visit|title=Portuguese Prime Minister (Visit) |date=10 July 1973 |website=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |language=en-GB |access-date=2017-07-21}}</ref>

The war became unpopular in Portugal, and the country became increasingly polarised. Thousands of left-wing students and anti-war activists avoided [[conscription]] by [[Illegal emigration#Portugal|emigrating illegally]], primarily to [[France]] and the [[United States]]. Meanwhile, three generations of right-wing militants in Portuguese schools were guided by a [[revolutionary nationalism]] partially influenced by European [[neo-fascism]], and supported the [[Portuguese Empire]] and an authoritarian regime.<ref>[http://www.scielo.oces.mctes.pt/pdf/aso/n188/n188a04.pdf A direita radical na Universidade de Coimbra (1945–1974)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303234238/http://www.scielo.oces.mctes.pt/pdf/aso/n188/n188a04.pdf |date=3 March 2009 }}, Marchi, Riccardo. A direita radical na Universidade de Coimbra (1945–1974). Anál. Social, July 2008, nº 188, pp.&nbsp;551–576. {{ISSN|0003-2573}}.</ref>

The war had a profound impact on the country. The revolutionary [[Armed Forces Movement]] (MFA) began as an attempt to liberate Portugal from the Estado Novo regime and challenge new military laws which were [[coming into force]].<ref name="infopedia.pt">{{in lang|pt}} Movimento das Forças Armadas (MFA). In Infopédia [Em linha]. Porto: [[Porto Editora]], 2003–2009. [Consult. 2009-01-07]. Disponível na www: URL: https://www.infopedia.pt/artigos/$movimento-das-forcas-armadas-(mfa)</ref><ref name="Armed_Forces_Movement">[http://maltez.info/respublica/portugalpolitico/grupospoliticos/movimento_das_forcas_armadas.htm Movimento das Forças Armadas (1974–1975)], Projecto CRiPE – Centro de Estudos em Relações Internacionais, Ciência Política e Estratégia. © José Adelino Maltez. Cópias autorizadas, desde que indicada a origem. Última revisão em: 2 October 2008.</ref> The laws would reduce the military budget and reformulate the Portuguese military.<ref>''Decretos-Leis n.os 353, de 13 de Julho de 1973, e 409, de 20 de Agosto''.</ref> Younger military-academy graduates resented Caetano's programme of commissioning militia officers who completed a brief training course and had served in the colonies' defensive campaigns at the same rank as academy graduates.<ref name=Matos/>