Editing Celestial globe (section)

== History ==

=== Ancient Greece ===
The Roman writer [[Cicero]] reported the statements of the Roman astronomer [[Gaius Sulpicius Gallus]] of the second century BC, the first globe was constructed by [[Thales of Miletus]]. This could indicate that celestial globes were in production throughout antiquity however, without any celestial globes surviving from this time, it is difficult to say for sure. What is known is that in book VIII, chapter 3 of [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]] he outlines ideas for the design and production of a celestial globe. This includes some notes on how the globe should be decorated, suggesting ‘the sphere a dark colour resembling the night sky’.{{sfn|Savage-Smith|1985|page=8}}

[[Image:Atlas (Farnese Globe).jpg|thumb|''[[Farnese Atlas]]'' ([[Naples National Archaeological Museum|Museo Archeologico Nazionale]], [[Naples]]), the oldest still existing celestial globe]]

The [[Farnese Atlas]], a 2nd-century AD Roman marble sculpture of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] which probably copies an earlier work of the Hellenistic era, is holding a celestial globe {{convert|65|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter, which for many years was the only known celestial globe from the ancient world.<ref name=Dekker>{{cite journal|last1=Dekker |first1=Elly |date=2009|title= Featuring the First Greek Celestial Globe |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/23993955|journal= Globe Studies|issue= 55/56|pages= 133–152|jstor=23993955 |access-date=2023-11-19}}</ref> No stars are depicted on the globe, but it shows over 40 classical Greek constellations in substantial detail.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Kristen |last1=Lippincott|chapter=Reflections on the Farnese Atlas: Exploring the scientific, literary and pictorial antecedents of the constellations on a Graeco-Roman globe |title=The Imagined Sky: Cultural perspectives|editor-last=Gunzburg|editor-first=Darrelyn | publication-place=Sheffield|publisher=Equinox Press|year=2016|pages=55–86}}</ref> In the 1990s, two smaller celestial globes from antiquity became public: one from brass measuring {{convert|11|cm|abbr=on}} held by the [[Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum]], and one from gilt silver measuring {{convert|6.3|cm|abbr=on}} privately held by the Kugel family.<ref name=Dekker />

=== Al-Sufi's ''The Book of Fixed Stars'' ===
[[File:Book of the Fixed Stars Auv0156 delphinus.jpg|thumb|upright|Constellation of [[Delphinus]] from a copy of 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's ''[[Book of Fixed Stars]], 1125''{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|pages=123–155}}|left]]

[[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] was an important 10th-century astronomer whose works were instrumental in the Islamic development of the celestial globe.{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|pages=125, 153}} His book, ''[[The Book of Fixed Stars]]'', designed for accuracy for the year 964, was a "description of the constellations that combines Greek/ Ptolemaic traditions with Arabic/Bedouin ones".{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|pages=125–126}} ''The Book of Fixed Stars'' then served as an important source of star coordinates for makers of [[astrolabe]]s and globes across the Islamic world.{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|page=153}} Similarly, it was "instrumental in displacing the traditional Bedouin constellation imagery and replacing it with the Greek/Ptolemaic system which ultimately came to dominate all astronomy".{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|page=153}}

=== 11th century ===
The earliest surviving celestial globe was made between 1080 and 1085 C.E. by [[Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli]], a well-known astrolabe maker working in [[Valencia]], Spain.{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|pages=126, 127, 153}} Although the imagery on this globe appears to be unrelated to that in al-Sufi's The Book of the Constellations al-Wazzan does seem to have been aware of this work, as all forty-eight of the classical Greek constellations are illustrated on the globe, just as in al-Sufi's treatise, with the stars indicated by circles.{{sfn|Blair|Bloom|2013|pages=126, 127}}

=== 13th century ===
In the 13th century, a celestial globe, now housed in the [[Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon|Mathematisch-Physikalischer]] Salon in [[Dresden]], was produced at one of the most important centres of astronomy in intellectual history, the Ilkhanid observatory at [[Maragheh|Maragha]] in north-western Iran constructed in 1259 and headed by Nasir al-Dln TusT (d. 1274), the renowned polymath.{{sfn|Carey|2009}} This particular scientific instrument was made by the son of the renowned scientist Mu'ayyad al-'Urdi al-Dimashqi, Muhammad b. Mu'ayyad al-'Urdl in 1288. This globe is an interesting example of how celestial globes demonstrate both the scientific and the artistic talents of those who make them. All forty-eight classical constellations used in Ptolemy's Almagest are represented on the globe, meaning it could then be used in calculations for astronomy and astrology, such as navigation, time-keeping or determining a horoscope.{{sfn|Carey|2009|pages=103–104}} Artistically, this globe is an insight into thirteenth century Iranian illustration as the thirteenth century was a period when inlaid brass became a premier medium for figural imagery and so the globes from this period are duly exceptional for the detail and clarity of their engraved figures.{{sfn|Carey|2009}}

=== 17th century ===
[[File:Jahangir_-_Abu_al-Hasan.jpeg|thumb|upright|right|A detailed portrait of the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Jahangir]] holding a celestial globe by [[Abu'l-Hasan (artist)|Abul Hasan]] (dated 1617 AD)<ref>{{cite web |date=March 2010 |title=National Portrait Gallery claims "Lost" Emperor Portrait is Largest Mughal Painting Ever Seen |url=http://www.artknowledgenews.com/2010-03-10-23-00-01-national-portrait-gallery-claims-lost-emperor-portrait-is-largest-mughal-painting-ever-seen.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605105040/http://www.artknowledgenews.com/2010-03-10-23-00-01-national-portrait-gallery-claims-lost-emperor-portrait-is-largest-mughal-painting-ever-seen.html |archive-date=5 June 2012 |website=ArtKnowledgeNews.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=7 April 2011 |title=Jahangir portrait sold for Rs. 10 crore at London auction |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/article1606093.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410223855/http://www.thehindu.com/news/article1606093.ece |archive-date=10 April 2011 |work=The Hindu |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]}}</ref>]]

A 17th-century celestial globe was made by Diya' ad-din Muhammad in [[Lahore]], 1668 (now in Pakistan).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Celestial globe|url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/|access-date=2020-10-15|website=National Museums Scotland|language=en}}</ref> It is now housed at the [[National Museum of Scotland]]. It is encircled by a meridian ring and a horizon ring.{{sfn|Savage-Smith|1985|page=67}} The latitude angle of 32° indicates that the globe was made in the Lahore workshop.{{sfn|Savage-Smith|1985|page=69}} This specific "workshop claims 21 signed globes—the largest number from a single shop" making this globe a good example of celestial globe production at its peak.{{sfn|Savage-Smith|1985|page=43}} The globe itself has been manufactured in one piece, so as to be seamless.

There are grooves which encircle the surface of the globe that create 12 sections of 30° which pass through the ecliptic poles. While they are no longer used in astronomy today, they are called "ecliptic latitude circles" and help astronomers of the Arabic and Greek worlds find the co-ordinates of a particular star.{{sfn|Savage-Smith|1985|page=61}} Each of the 12 sections corresponds to a house in the [[zodiac]].