Editing Cetacean surfacing behaviour (section)

== Travelling surface behaviour ==
=== Breaching and lunging === <!--'Breach' seems to link here, regardless of classification-->
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File:Anim1091 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|Humpback whale spinner-breaching
File:Dwarf sperm whale (NOAA Pitman).jpg|[[Dwarf sperm whale]] breaching
File:Killerwhales jumping.jpg|[[Orca]]s double-breaching off the south side of [[Unimak Island]], [[Alaska]]
File:Hector'sDolphinsCloudyBay 21Feb2012 AnjanetteBaker.tif|[[Hector's Dolphin]]s off [[Cloudy Bay]], New Zealand
</gallery>
[[File:Humpback juvenile breach sequence.jpg|right|thumb|[[Humpback whale]] breach sequence]]
A ''breach'' or a ''lunge'' is a leap out of the water, also known as cresting. The distinction between the two is fairly arbitrary: cetacean researcher [[Hal Whitehead]] defines a breach as any leap in which at least 40% of the animal's body clears the water, and a lunge as a leap with less than 40% clearance.<ref name="Hal">{{Citation|title=Publications List|author=Whitehead Lab|url=http://whitelab.biology.dal.ca/labpub.htm|access-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> Qualitatively, a breach is a genuine jump with an intent to clear the water, whereas a lunge is the result of a fast upward-sloping swim that has caused the whale to clear the surface of the water unintentionally. This latter "lunging" behaviour is often a result of feeding in [[rorqual]]s.<ref name="Ware2011">{{Citation|title=Shallow and deep lunge feeding of humpback whales in fjords of the West Antarctic Peninsula|first1=C.|last1=Ware|first2=A. S.|last2=Friedlaender|first3=D. P.|last3=Nowacek|year=2011|journal=Marine Mammal Science|volume=27|issue=3|pages=587–605|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2010.00427.x|bibcode=2011MMamS..27..587W }}</ref> The right, humpback, and sperm whales are the most widely observed jumpers. However other [[baleen whale]]s such as [[Fin whale|fin]], [[Blue whale|blue]], [[Minke whale|minke]], [[Gray whale|gray]] and [[Sei whale|sei]] whales also breach. [[Oceanic dolphin]]s, including the [[orca]], are very common breachers and are in fact capable of lifting themselves completely out of the water very easily, although there is little distinction between this and [[#Porpoising|porpoising]]. Some non-cetacean marine creatures also exhibit breaching behavior, such as several shark species and rays of the genera ''[[Manta ray|Manta]]'' and ''[[Mobula]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.malbertphoto.com/mobulas1.html|title=The Flying Mobulas of the Sea of Cortez|author=Paul and Michael Albert|date=26 June 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504035343/http://www.malbertphoto.com/mobulas1.html|archive-date=4 May 2013}}</ref>

Two techniques are used by cetaceans in order to breach. The first method, most common in sperm and humpback whales, is conducted by swimming vertically upwards from depth, and heading straight out of the water.<ref name="Dodo">{{citation|title=This is how whales break through the surface of the water|author=The Dodo|access-date=2015-05-25|url=https://www.thedodo.com/whales-breach-underwater-gifs-736758901.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525104940/https://www.thedodo.com/whales-breach-underwater-gifs-736758901.html|archive-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> The other more common method is to travel close to the surface and parallel to it, and then jerk upwards at full speed with as few as 3 tail strokes to perform a breach.<ref name="Dodo" /><ref name="CB">{{Citation|title=Breaching|publisher=Conscious Breath Adventures|url=http://consciousbreathadventures.com/breaching/|access-date=2015-05-25}}</ref> In all breaches the cetacean clears the water with the majority of its body at an acute angle, such as an average of 30° to the horizontal as recorded in sperm whales.<ref>{{citation|title=Sperm whales: social evolution in the ocean|author=Hal Whitehead|year=2003|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/179 179]|isbn=978-0-226-89517-8|url=https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/179}}</ref> The whale then turns to land on its back or side, and less frequently may not turn but "belly flop" instead. In order to achieve 90% clearance, a humpback needs to leave the water at a speed of eight metres per second or {{convert|29|km/h}}. For a {{convert|36|MT|ST}} animal, this results in a [[momentum]] of 288 thousand [[newton second]]s. Despite its energetic cost, breaching is often carried out in series. The longest recorded sustained series was by a humpback near the [[West Indies]] totaling 130 leaps in less than 90 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/marine/whales/whale_behaviour.html|title=Whale Behaviour|date=26 February 2015 |publisher=Animal Corner}}</ref> Repeated breaches tire the animal, so less of the body clears the water each time.<ref name="Whitehead2003">{{Citation |title=Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean |first=Hal |last=Whitehead |page=181|isbn=978-0-226-89517-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKXdCli7nI0C&pg=PA181 |year=2003|publisher =University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}}</ref>

Ultimately, the reasons for breaching are unknown; however, there is evidence to support a range of hypotheses. Whales are more likely to breach when they are in groups, suggesting that it is a non-verbal signal to other group members during social behaviour. Scientists have called this theory [[signalling theory|"honest signalling"]]. The immense cloud of bubbles and underwater disturbance following a breach cannot be faked; neighbours then know a breach has taken place. A single breach costs a whale only about 0.075% of its total daily energy intake, but a long series of breaches may add up to a significant energy expenditure.<ref name="Whitehead2003" /> A breach is therefore a sign that the animal is physically fit enough to afford energy for this acrobatic display, hence it could be used for ascertaining dominance, courting or warning of danger.<ref name="Dodo" /> It is also possible that the loud "smack" upon re-entering is useful for stunning or scaring prey, similar to [[#Lobtailing and slapping|lobtailing]]. As breaching is often seen in rough seas it is possible that a breach allows the whale to breathe in air that is not close to the surface and full of spray, or that they use breaching to communicate when the noise of the ocean would mask acoustic signals.<ref name="USCB">{{Citation|title=Why do whales and other sea mammals breach?|author=USCB ScienceLine|url=http://scienceline.ucsb.edu/getkey.php?key=682}}</ref> Another widely accepted possible reason is to dislodge parasites from the skin.<ref name="USCB" /> The behaviour may also be more simply a form of play.<ref name="USCB" />

=== Porpoising ===
<gallery widths="250px" heights="220px">
File:Hourglas dolphin crop.jpg|[[Hourglass dolphin]]s in [[Drake Passage]]
File:Anim0796 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|[[Southern right whale dolphin]]s porpoising
</gallery>
''Porpoising'', also known as running,<ref name="OH4">{{Citation|title=At high speeds dolphins save energy by leaping. |date=1980 |first1=D. |last1=Au |first2=D. |last2=Weihs |journal=Nature |volume=284 |issue=5756 |pages=548–550 |doi=10.1038/284548a0|bibcode=1980Natur.284..548A |s2cid=4334691 }}</ref> is a high speed surface behaviour of small cetaceans where long jumps are alternated with swimming close to the surface. Despite the name, porpoising behaviour is seen in dolphins and porpoises, as well as other marine species such as [[penguins]]<ref name="OH5">{{Citation|title=The porpoising of penguins an energy-conserving behaviour for respiratory ventilation? |first1=C. A. |last1=Hui |year=1987 |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=65 |pages=209–211 |doi=10.1139/z87-031}}</ref> and [[pinnipeds]].<ref name="OH6">{{Citation|title=Dynamics of dolphin porpoising revisited |first1=D. |last1=Weihs |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |year=2002 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=1071–1078 |doi=10.1093/icb/42.5.1071 |pmid=21680390|doi-access=free }}</ref> When [[marine mammals]] are travelling at speed they are forced to stay close to the surface in order to maintain [[Breathing|respiration]] for the energetic exercise. At leisurely cruising speeds below 4.6&nbsp;m/s, dolphins swim below the water's surface and only briefly expose their [[blowhole (anatomy)|blowholes]] along with up to one third of their body at any one time.<ref name="OH4" /> This results in little splashing as they have a very streamlined shape.<ref name="OH6" /> Porpoising occurs mainly when dolphins and porpoises are swimming at speeds greater than 4.6&nbsp;m/s.<ref name="OH4" /> Here, jump length is roughly equal to distance traveled when the cetaceans are submerged.<ref name="OH4" /> This exposes the blowhole for longer which is needed to get enough oxygen to maintain [[metabolism]] and therefore high speeds over long periods of time. Studies have also shown that leaping is more energetically efficient than swimming above a certain threshold speed.<ref name="OH4" /> This is due to the reduction in friction when travelling in air compared to water which saves more energy than is needed to produce the leap.<ref name="OH6" /> These benefits also outweigh the energy wasted due to the large amount of splashing often seen when groups are porpoising.<ref name="OH4" /> Porpoising is therefore a result of high speed swimming which cetaceans use for important pursuit and escape activities. For example, dolphins may be seen porpoising away from their main predator, [[sharks]]<ref name="test 6">{{Citation|title=Shark attacks on bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in Shark Bay, Western Australia: attack rate, bite scar frequencies, and attack seasonality |journal=Marine Mammal Science |pages=526–539 |volume=17 |issue=3 |year=2001 |first1=M. R. |last1=Heithaus |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb01002.x|bibcode=2001MMamS..17..526H }}</ref> or the direction of incoming boats to avoid collision.<ref name="test_7">{{Citation|title=Effects of tour boats on the behavior of bottlenose dolphins: using Markov chains to model anthropogenic impacts |year=2003 |first1=D. |last1=Lusseau |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=1785–1793 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00054.x|bibcode=2003ConBi..17.1785L |s2cid=83589031 }}</ref>

Although porpoising is a useful product of rapid swimming, much variation seen in the behaviour cannot be explained by this cause alone; it has likely evolved to provide other functions. For example, the rotation during porpoising by the [[spinner dolphin]] leads to much splashing and is more common at slower speeds<ref name="OH4" /> so cannot be attributed to an energy saving mechanism. It is therefore more likely to be a form of play or communication within or between pods.<ref name="OH4" /> Another reason might be to remove [[barnacles]] or [[remora]]s that, when attached, increase drag during swimming.<ref name="test_10">{{Citation|title=Mechanics of remora removal by dolphin spinning |year=2007 |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=707–714 |first1=D. |last1=Weihs |first2=F. E. |last2=Fish |first3=A. J. |last3=Nicastro |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2007.00131.x|bibcode=2007MMamS..23..707W }}</ref> When spinner dolphins impact the water the combination of [[centrifugal force|centrifugal]] and vertical force upon these [[ectoparasites]] can be up to 700 times their own weight and so efficiently remove them.<ref name="test_10" /> Other theories suggest that cetaceans may porpoise in order to observe distant objects such as food by looking for visual cues, such as birds dive-bombing a [[bait ball]].<ref name="test_8">[http://www.dolphins-world.com/why-do-dolphins-jump-out-of-the-water/], "Why do dolphins jump out of the water?", Dolphin World FAQ.</ref> Research into the additional functions of porpoising has so far been focussed on the more acrobatic species, but it is likely that other cetaceans also use it for these, and perhaps unknown, reasons too.

=== Wave or bow-riding and following vessels ===
<gallery widths="190" heights="180">
File:091201 south georgia orca 5127 (4173388802).jpg|"Type B" orcas off [[South Georgia Island|South Georgia]]
File:Weißwal 2-1999.jpg|[[Beluga whale|Belugas]] following watching boats in [[Churchill River (Hudson Bay)|Churchill River]]
File:US Navy 090415-N-3027S-002 Dolphins jump the wake in front of the Military Sealift Command fast-combat support ship USNS Rainer (T-AOE 7) during an ammunition onload with the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN 68).jpg
</gallery>
The term ''wave-riding'' is most commonly used to describe the surface activity of cetaceans that approach boats and jump repeatedly in the waves produced by the boats. This includes ''bow-riding'', where cetaceans are in the pressure wave in front of the boat, and ''wake-riding'', where they are off the stern in the wake.<ref name="Miller2010">{{Citation|title=Seasonal and Diurnal Patterns of Behavior Exhibited by Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphins (''Tursiops truncatus'') in the Mississippi Sound|journal=Ethology|year=2010|first1=L. J.|last1=Miller|first2=M.|last2=Solangi|first3=S. A.|last3=Kuczaj|volume=116|issue=12|pages=1127–1137|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01824.x|bibcode=2010Ethol.116.1127M }}</ref> Cetaceans swim using fluke propulsion when experiencing wave energy below the threshold needed for riding, such as when boats travel at speeds slower than 3&nbsp;m/s<ref name="Williams1992">{{Citation|title=Travel at low energetic cost by swimming and wave-riding bottlenose dolphins|journal=Nature|year=1992|volume=355|issue=6363|pages=821–823|first1=T. M.|last1=Williams|first2=W. A.|last2=Friedl|first3=M. L.|last3=Fong|first4=R. M.|last4=Yamada|first5=P.|last5=Sedivy|first6=J. E.|last6=Huan|doi=10.1038/355821a0|pmid=1538760|bibcode=1992Natur.355..821W|s2cid=4281153}}</ref> or when they are outside of the peak wave energy zone. However, at higher speeds dolphins and porpoises will seek out the pressure wave and its maximum energy zone in order to ride the wave by holding their flukes in a fixed plane, with only minor adjustments for repositioning.<ref name="Williams1992" /> Wave-riding reduces the energetic cost of swimming to the dolphin, even when compared to slower swimming speeds.<ref name="Williams1992" /> For example, [[heart rate]], [[metabolic rate]] and transport cost was reduced by up to 70% during wave-riding compared to swimming at speeds 1&nbsp;m/s slower in [[bottlenose dolphin]].<ref name="Williams1992" /> Wave-riding behaviour can be performed by dolphins from minutes up to several hours,<ref name="Williams1992" /> and therefore is a useful energy-saving mechanism for swimming at higher speeds.

Wave-riding is most common in small [[Odontocete]]s. It has also been observed in larger cetaceans such as [[false killer whale]]s and [[orca]],<ref name="nbc">{{cite news |author1=Rafael Avitabile |title=Fishing charter crew captures orca pod playing in boat's wake |url=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/fishing-charter-crew-captures-orca-pod-playing-in-boats-wake/50262/ |access-date=5 November 2020 |work=NBC News - San Diego |date=10 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Dahlheim1980">{{Citation|title=Killer whales observed bowriding|first1=M. E.|last1=Dahlheim|journal=The Murrelet|volume=61|issue=2|pages=78–80|jstor=3535038|year=1980}}</ref> although most larger Odontocetes do not seek out any form of interaction with boats. Bow-riding is the most common form of interactive behaviour with boats across a variety of smaller Odontocete species, such as dolphins in the genera ''[[Stenella]]'' and ''[[Delphinus (genus)|Delphinus]]''.<ref name="Ritter2003">{{Citation|title=Interactions of cetaceans with whale watching boats–implications for the management of whale watching tourism|year=2003|first1=F.|last1=Ritter|journal=MEER EV, Berlin, Germany|url=http://www.m-e-e-r.org/uploads/media/Executive_Summary_Report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524154259/http://www.m-e-e-r.org/uploads/media/Executive_Summary_Report.pdf|archive-date=2015-05-24}}</ref> The type of interaction can often depend on the behavioral state of the group as well as species. For example, spotted dolphins are more likely to interact when travelling or milling but less likely when they are socialising or surface feeding.<ref name="Ritter2003" /> Interactive behavior may also depend on group composition, as both orca and bottlenose dolphins have been recorded to interact mostly when a calf was in the group.<ref name="Ritter2003"/><ref name="Hawkins2009">{{Citation|title=Interactive behaviours of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) during encounters with vessels|first1=E.|last1=Hawkins|first2=D. F.|last2=Gartside|year=2009|journal=Aquatic Mammals|volume=35|issue=2|pages=259–268|doi=10.1578/AM.35.2.2009.259}}</ref> This indicates that groups with calves may approach boats in order to teach the young how to interact safely to avoid collision. Another result of cetaceans traveling in pods is an increase in competition for the optimal wave energy and so maximum energy saving position. Position of individuals may reflect the dominance [[hierarchy]] of the pod and therefore could be used to ascertain dominance.<ref name="Dahlheim1980" /> Several [[rorqual]]s, such as [[minke whale|minke]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbase.com/maceg/image/3653655|title=La baleine s'amuse by Gilles Macé|website=PBase|access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> [[sei whale|sei]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50dEXQSjdSI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/50dEXQSjdSI |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=クジラの大群|last=橘田佳音利|date=7 March 2014|access-date=24 September 2018|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Bryde's whale|bryde's]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expeditions.com/daily-expedition-reports/179002/|title=Boná Island and Panama Canal, Panama|date=January 14, 2016|work=Expeditions.com}}</ref> [[humpback whale|humpback]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20021230_log_transcript.html|title=Bowriding Humpback Whales – Log Transcript|date=December 30, 2002|work=PBS}}</ref> and [[gray whale|gray]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fox5sandiego.com/2016/02/03/2-gray-whales-caught-some-waves-near-mission-beach/|title=2 gray whales catch waves near Mission Beach|date=February 3, 2016|work=FOX5 San Diego}}</ref> are also known to display actions in similar manners.

==== Gallery ====
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jumping_dolphins Jumping dolphins]