Editing Chad (section)

== History ==
{{main|History of Chad}}

=== Early history ===
In the [[7th millennium BC]], ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favoured human settlement, and its population increased considerably. Some of the most important [[African archaeology|African archaeological]] sites are found in Chad, mainly in the [[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region]]; some date to earlier than 2000 BC.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 44–45</ref><ref name="Collelo">S. Collelo, ''Chad''</ref>

[[File:Group of Kanem-Bu warriors.jpg|thumb|Group of Kanem-Bu warriors. The [[Kanem–Bornu Empire]] controlled almost all of what is today Chad|left]]

For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and [[sedentism|sedentary]] people. The region became a crossroads of civilisations. The earliest of these was the legendary [[Sao civilisation|Sao]], known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the [[Kanem Empire]],<ref name=Lange88>D. Lange 1988</ref><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 6</ref> the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's [[Sahel]]ian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Two other states in the region, [[Sultanate of Bagirmi]] and [[Wadai Empire]], emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes that passed through the region.<ref name="Collelo"/> These states, at least tacitly [[Islam in Africa|Muslim]], never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 7–8</ref> In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=29 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

=== French colonial period (1900–1960) ===
{{Main|French Chad}}
French colonial expansion led to the creation of the {{lang|fr|Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad}} in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]].<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8, 309</ref> [[Colonial Chad|French rule in Chad]] was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.<ref name="Decalo, pp. 8–9">[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 8–9</ref>

The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw [[cotton]]; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the [[Sara people|Sara]] of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system was affected by this neglect.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref name="Decalo, pp. 8–9"/>

The French administration's focus on cotton led to the formation of a precarious underclass of poorly-paid rural workers, a decrease in food production and even to [[Famine|famines]] in some areas.<ref name="lemarchand">{{cite journal |last=Lemarchand |first=René |author-link=René Lemarchand |date=1980 |title=The Politics of Sara Ethnicity : A Note on the Origins of the Civil War in Chad |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1980_num_20_80_2328 |journal=[[Cahiers d'Études Africaines|Cahiers d'études africaines]] |volume=20 |issue=80 |pages=455–456 |doi=10.3406/cea.1980.2328 |access-date=25 February 2025}}</ref> Tensions between farmers and elites culminated in the 1952 [[Bébalem massacre]] by colonial authorities.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Debos |first=Marielle |date=2009 |title=Chad 1900-1960 |url=https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01104080/file/Chad-1900-1960.pdf |encyclopedia=[[Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence]] |page=8-9 |access-date=25 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lanne|first=Bernard|title=Histoire politique du Tchad de 1945 à 1958. Administration, partis, élections|location=Paris|publisher=[[Éditions Karthala|Karthala]]|page=197-218|isbn=9782865378838}}</ref>

[[File:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|left|A Chadian soldier fighting for [[Free French Forces|Free France]] during [[World War II]]. The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], p. 53</ref>]]
After [[World War II]], France granted Chad the status of [[Overseas France|overseas territory]] and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the [[National Assembly (France)|National Assembly]] and a [[National Assembly (Chad)|Chadian assembly]]. The largest political party was the [[Chadian Progressive Party]] ({{langx|fr|Parti Progressiste Tchadien}}, PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, [[François Tombalbaye]], an ethnic [[Sara people|Sara]], as its first [[Heads of state of Chad|president]].<ref name="Collelo"/><ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 248–249</ref><ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 17</ref>

=== Tombalbaye rule (1960–1979) ===
Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions. In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by the [[FROLINAT|National Liberation Front of Chad]] ({{langx|fr|Front de libération nationale du Tchad}}, FRONILAT), began a [[Transitional Government of National Unity (Chad)|civil war]]. Tombalbaye was [[1975 Chadian coup d'état|overthrown and killed]] in 1975,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012172429/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917376,00.html "Death of a Dictator"], ''Time'', (28 April 1975). Accessed on 3 September 2007.</ref> but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions led by [[Hissène Habré]] took the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.<ref>[[#Decalo|Decalo]], pp. 12–16</ref><ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 268</ref>

=== Chad's first civil war (1979–1987) ===
The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. [[Libya]] moved to fill the power vacuum and became [[Chadian-Libyan conflict|involved in Chad's civil war]].<ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 150</ref> Libya's adventure [[Toyota War|ended in disaster]] in 1987; the French-supported president, [[Hissène Habré]], evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before<ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], p. 230</ref> and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.<ref>[[Kenneth Pollack|Pollack, Kenneth M.]] (2002); ''[[iarchive:arabsatwarmilita0000poll/page/391/mode/2up|Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991]]''. Lincoln: [[University of Nebraska Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8032-3733-2}}, pp. 391–397</ref>

=== Dictatorship of Habré (1987–1990) ===
Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.<ref>Macedo, Stephen (2006); ''Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law''. University of Pennsylvania Press. {{ISBN|0-8122-1950-3}}, pp. 133–134</ref><ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR20/004/2001/en "Chad: the Habré Legacy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113041028/http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR20/004/2001/en |date=13 January 2015 }}. [[Amnesty International]]. 16 October 2001.</ref> The president favoured his own [[Toubou people|Toubou]] ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]]. His general, [[Idriss Déby]], overthrew him in 1990.<ref>[[#Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu]], pp. 234–237</ref> Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in [[Senegal]] in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chad ex-leader Habre charged in Senegal with war crimes |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23153532 |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2013 |access-date=2 July 2013 |archive-date=3 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703014035/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-23153532 |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2016, he was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36411466| title = Hissène Habré: Chad's ex-ruler convicted of crimes against humanity| year = 2016| publisher = BBC| access-date = 21 July 2018| archive-date = 12 July 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180712195314/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36411466| url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Déby lineage & democracy with second Civil War (1990–present) ===
[[File:Idriss Déby at the White House in 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|Despite internal political opposition, coup attempts, and a civil war, [[Idriss Déby]] continuously ruled Chad from 1990 until his death in 2021]]

Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a [[Constitution of Chad|new constitution]] by [[1996 Chadian constitutional referendum|referendum]], and in 1996, Déby easily won a [[Chadian presidential election, 1996|competitive presidential election]]. He won a [[Chadian presidential election, 2001|second term]] five years later.<ref>East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); ''Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders''. Routledge. {{ISBN|1-85743-126-X}}, p. 100</ref> [[Petroleum|Oil]] exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would, at last, have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a [[War in Chad (2005–present)|new civil war]] broke out. Déby [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 2005|unilaterally modified the constitution]] to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.<ref>IPS, "{{lang|fr|Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad}}"</ref>

In 2006 Déby won [[Chadian presidential election, 2006|a third mandate]] in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] has warned that a [[genocide]] like that in [[Darfur conflict|Darfur]] may yet occur in Chad.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6367545.stm Chad may face genocide, UN warns] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621153807/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6367545.stm |date=21 June 2022 }}. BBC News, 16 February 2007</ref> [[Battle of N'Djamena (2006)|In 2006]] and [[Battle of N'Djamena (2008)|in 2008]] rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force, but failed on both occasions.<ref>{{cite news | title=Chad's leader asserts he controls | date=6 February 2008 | agency=Associated Press | newspaper=USA Today | url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-02-06-chad_N.htm}}</ref> An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.<ref>{{cite book|title=World Report 2011: Chad|date=24 January 2011|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad|publisher=Human Rights Watch|access-date=6 June 2011|archive-date=28 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828072906/http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/chad|url-status=dead}}</ref> The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against President [[Idriss Déby]] that had been in preparation for several months.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chad government foils coup attempt – minister |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-chad-coup-idUKBRE94101H20130502 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306101129/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-chad-coup-idUKBRE94101H20130502 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 March 2016 |publisher=[[Reuters]] |year=2013}}</ref>

Chad is one of the leading partners in a [[Multinational Joint Task Force|West African coalition]] in the [[Boko Haram insurgency|fight]] against [[Boko Haram]] and other Islamist militants.<ref name=":1" /> Chad's army announced the death of Déby on 20 April 2021, following an [[2021 Northern Chad offensive|incursion]] in the northern region by the [[Front for Change and Concord in Chad|FACT]] group, during which the president was killed amid fighting on the front lines.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |title=Chad's president Idriss Déby dies 'in clashes with rebels' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56815708 |publisher=BBC News |date=20 April 2021 |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420200202/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56815708 |url-status=live }}</ref> Déby's son, [[Mahamat Déby Itno|General Mahamat Idriss Déby]], has been named interim president by a [[Transitional Military Council (Chad)|Transitional Council of military officers]]. That transitional council has replaced the [[Constitution of Chad|Constitution]] with a new charter, granting Mahamat Déby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces.<ref name=":2">{{cite news|last=Ramadane|first=Madjiasra Nako, Mahamat|date=21 April 2021|title=Chad in turmoil after Deby death as rebels, opposition challenge military|publisher=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chad-deby-idUSKBN2C818G|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421153549/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chad-deby-idUSKBN2C818G|url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 May 2024, Mahamat  Idriss Déby was sworn in as [[President of Chad]] after the disputed 6 May [[2024 Chadian presidential election|election]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Chad transitional ruler inaugurated amid legitimacy concerns |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/chad-swears-in-president-ending-years-of-military-rule/7624040.html |work=Voice of America |date=23 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref>