Editing Child labour (section)

== History ==
===Preindustrial societies===
Child labour forms an intrinsic part of pre-industrial economies.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |title=The World Until Yesterday |date=2012 |publisher=Viking |isbn=9780670024810}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=E. P. |title=The Making of the English Working Class |publisher=Penguin |year=1968}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref> In [[Pre-industrial society|pre-industrial societies]], there is rarely a concept of childhood in the modern sense. Children often begin to actively participate in activities such as [[Parenting|child rearing]], hunting and farming as soon as they are competent. In many societies, children as young as 13 are seen as adults and engage in the same activities as adults.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNICEF |url=https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/hisper_childlabour.pdf}}</ref> Pre-industrial societies were characterised by low productivity and short [[life expectancy]]; preventing children from participating in productive work would be more harmful to their welfare and that of their group in the long run. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school. This is especially the case in non-literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or [[apprenticing]] by competent adults.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

<gallery>
File:Mill Children in Macon 2.jpg|Child labourers, [[Macon, Georgia]], 1909
File:Child Labor in New Jersey United States 1923.jpg|Children working in home-based assembly operations in United States (1923)
File:Abolish child slavery.jpg|Two girls protesting child labour (by calling it child slavery) in the 1909 New York City [[Labor Day]] parade.
File:Child labor, cranberry bog, Burlington County, New Jersey, 8a10151.jpg|[[Arthur Rothstein]], ''Child Labor, Cranberry Bog'', 1939. [[Brooklyn Museum]].
</gallery>

===Industrial Revolution===
[[File:Child Labor in United States 1908, 12 hour night shifts.jpg|thumb|Children going to a 12-hour night shift in the United States (1908)]]
[[File:Child Labor in United States 1912a.jpg|thumb|The early 20th century witnessed many home-based enterprises involving child labour. An example is shown above from New York in 1912.]]
{{wikisource|The Vow of the Peacock and Other Poems/The Factory|"The Factory", a poem by L. E. L.}}

With the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain in the late 18th century, there was a rapid increase in the industrial exploitation of labour, including child labour. Industrial cities such as [[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]], and [[Liverpool]] rapidly grew from small villages into large cities and improving [[child mortality]] rates. These cities drew in the population that was rapidly growing due to increased agricultural output. This process was replicated in other industrialising countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7yo1EAAAQBAJ&dq=These+cities+drew+in+the+population+that+was+rapidly+growing+due+to+increased+agricultural+output.+This+process+was+replicated+in+other+industrialising+countries&pg=PA76 |title=Children Forsaken |date=2021-07-12 |publisher=Critical Publishing |isbn=978-1-913453-84-8 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Victorian era]] in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed.<ref>Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, "[http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England]"</ref> Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal, working conditions.<ref name="Thompson">{{cite book |first=E. P. |last=Thompson |title=The Making of the English Working Class |publisher=Penguin |year=1968 |pages=366–367}}</ref> In [[coal mine]]s, children would crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jane |last=Humphries |title=Childhood And Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution |date=2010 |page=33 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521847568}}</ref> Children also worked as errand boys, [[crossing sweeper]]s, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods.<ref name="dan" /> Some children undertook work as [[apprentice]]s to respectable trades, such as building or as [[domestic servant]]s (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid-18th century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in the summer and 52 hours in winter, while servants worked 80-hour weeks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pal |first1=Jadab Kumar |last2=Chakraborty |first2=Sonali |last3=Tewari |first3=Hare Ram |last4=Chandra |first4=Vinod |date=March 2016 |title=The working hours of unpaid child workers in the handloom industry in India |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/issj.12121 |journal=International Social Science Journal |volume=66 |issue=219–220 |pages=197–204 |doi=10.1111/issj.12121 |issn=0020-8701|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship. The children of the poor were expected to contribute to their family income.<ref name="dan">{{cite web |first=Barbara |last=Daniels |url=http://www.hiddenlives.org.uk/articles/poverty.html |title=Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era |website=Hidden Lives Revealed |date=March 2003 |access-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> In 19th-century Great Britain, one-third of poor families were without a [[breadwinner]], as a result of death or abandonment, obliging many children to work from a young age. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered [[cotton mill]]s were described as children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm |title=Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109031609/http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm |archive-date=9 January 2006 |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2024 |first=Douglas A. |last=Galbi |date=13 June 1994}}</ref> A high number of children also worked as [[prostitute]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/history/hist8.html |title=Child Labour | author= David Cody |publisher=The Victorian Web|access-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> The author [[Charles Dickens]] worked at the age of 12 in a [[Blacking (polish)|blacking]] factory, with his family in a [[debtor's prison]].<ref name=Foster23>{{harvnb|Forster|2006|pp=23–24}}.</ref>

Child wages were often low, the wages were as little as 10–20% of an adult male's wage.<ref>Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST.</ref>{{better source needed|reason=This is a person, not a work. People as such aren't [[WP:V|verifiable]] in perpetuity and so aren't [[WP:IRS|reliable sources]]|date=May 2019}} [[Karl Marx]] was an outspoken opponent of child labour,<ref>In ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'', Part II: "Proletariats and Communists" and ''[[Capital, Volume I]]'', Part III</ref> saying British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/OPE/archive/0604/att-0138/01-PoliticalEconOfTheDead.pdf|last=Neocleous|first=Mark|title=The Political Economy of the Dead: Marx's Vampires|access-date=6 November 2013|archive-date=12 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412205331/http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/OPE/archive/0604/att-0138/01-PoliticalEconOfTheDead.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite speech|last=Marx|first=Karl|title=Inaugural Address of the International Working Men's Association|year=1864 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1864/10/27.htm}}</ref> [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] castigated child labour in her 1835 poem "The Factory", portions of which she pointedly included in her 18th Birthday Tribute to Princess Victoria in 1837.

Throughout the second half of the 19th century, child labour began to decline in industrialised societies due to regulation and economic factors because of the Growth of [[trade unions]]. The regulation of child labour began from the earliest days of the Industrial Revolution. The first act to regulate child labour in Britain was passed in 1803. As early as 1802 and 1819 [[Factory Acts]] were passed to regulate the working hours of [[workhouse]] children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to [[Factories Act 1847|another act in 1847]] limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days. [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury|Lord Shaftesbury]] was an outspoken advocate of regulating child labour.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}

As technology improved and proliferated, there was a greater need for educated employees. This saw an increase in schooling, with the eventual introduction of [[compulsory schooling]]. Improved technology, automation and further legislation significantly reduced child labour particularly in western Europe and the U.S.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}


According to Colin Heywood, reform oriented historians on the left developed an interpretation of child labour in the industrial West along these line:<ref>   Colin Heywood, “ A Brief Historiography of Child Labour” in ’ The World of Child Labor: A Historical and Regional Survey’’ (Routledge, 2009) ed. By Hugh D. Hindman p. 19.</ref> <blockquote>

It begins with the dragooning of large numbers of young people into textile mills, mines, and factories spawned by early industrialization, with new machinery making it possible to substitute women and children for adult male workers.  Conditions in the workshops were grim, with the familiar tale of long hours to match the relentless pace of the machines, a damp and dusty environment, and a heartless disciplinary regime. . . . A disparate group of reformers stepped forward at this point, to combat abuses with legislation, including hardheaded businessmen interested in maximizing profits, more philanthropically minded representatives of the landed gentry and professional classes, and, in the American case, leaders of organized labor. Gradually, by a process of trial and error, the state managed to curb some of the excesses of child labor, notably excluding younger age-groups from workshops, overcoming opposition from many industrialists and working-class parents in the process. Child labor thereby emerges as at its most abusive during the early, or “dirty,” phase of industrialization, and gradually disappears in developed economies as the state manages to force children out of the workshops and into schools.</blockquote>

===Early 20th century===
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Percentage children working in England and Wales<ref>{{cite book|title=Child Labour in Historical Perspective: 1800-1985|publisher=UNICEF|author=Hugh Cunningham |chapter=Combating Child Labour: The British Experience |editor1=Hugh Cunningham |editor2=Pier Paolo Viazzo|year=1996|pages=41–53 |isbn=978-88-85401-27-3|url=http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/hisper_childlabour_low.pdf#page=43|archive-date=23 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123040832/http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/hisper_childlabour_low.pdf#page=43|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
! Census year !! % boys aged 10–14<br />as child labour
|-
| 1881 || 22.9
|-
| 1891 || 26.0
|-
| 1901 || 21.9
|-
| 1911 || 18.3
|-
|colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |<small>''Note'': These are averages; child labour in [[Lancashire]] was 80%</small>
|-
|colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |<small>''Source'': Census of England and Wales</small>
|}

In the early 20th century, thousands of boys were employed in glass making industries. [[Glass production|Glass making]] was a dangerous and tough job especially without the current technologies. The process of making glass includes intense heat to melt glass ({{convert|3133|F}}). When the boys are at work, they are exposed to this heat. This could cause eye trouble, lung ailments, heat exhaustion, cuts, and burns. Since workers were paid by the piece, they had to work productively for hours without a break. Since furnaces had to be constantly burning, there were night shifts from 5:00&nbsp;pm to 3:00&nbsp;am. Many factory owners preferred boys under 16 years of age.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Russell |last1=Freedman |first2=Lewis |last2=Hine|title=Kids at work: Lewis Hine and the crusade against child labour|year=1994|publisher=Clarion Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0395587034|pages=[https://archive.org/details/kidsatworklewish00free/page/54 54–57]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/kidsatworklewish00free/page/54}}</ref>

An estimated 1.7 million children under the age of fifteen were employed in American industry by 1900.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://webinstituteforteachers.org/%7Ebobfinn/2003/industrialrevolution.htm |title=The Industrial Revolution |publisher=Web Institute for Teachers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804084618/http://webinstituteforteachers.org/~bobfinn/2003/industrialrevolution.htm |archive-date=4 August 2008 }}</ref>

In 1910, over 2 million children in the same age group were employed in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hine-photos/ |title=Teaching With Documents: Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labour |website=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |date=15 August 2016 |access-date=3 April 2024}}</ref> This included children who rolled cigarettes,<ref>{{cite web|title=Virginia: Cigarette Rollers|website=userpages.umbc.edu |url=http://userpages.umbc.edu/~arubin/HIST402_SP2007/87C1FBEB4AC722BB805B2CABD2BC32D4.html |first=Matthew |last=Vreatt}}</ref> engaged in factory work, worked as bobbin [[doffer]]s in textile mills, worked in coal mines and were employed in canneries.<ref>[http://userpages.umbc.edu/~arubin/HIST402_SP2007/9B72B3F098F81A13DAA017F591A2D33E.html Child Labour in the South: Essays and Links to photographs from the Lewis Hine Collection at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County].</ref> [[Lewis Hine]]'s photographs of child labourers in the 1910s powerfully evoked the plight of working children in the American south. Hine took these photographs between 1908 and 1917 as the staff photographer for the [[National Child Labor Committee]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Hine, Lewis|last=Warren |first=L. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography |location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFVsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA699 |page=699 |isbn=9781135205430}}</ref>
[[File:Children-working.jpg|thumb|Hard labor for children]]

====Household enterprises====
Factories and mines were not the only places where child labour was prevalent in the early 20th century. Home-based manufacturing across the United States and Europe employed children as well.<ref name=ep99>{{cite book |title=The Global Construction of Gender - Home based work in Political Economy of 20th Century|last=Prügl|first=Elisabeth|pages=25–31, 50–59|isbn=978-0231115612|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1999}}</ref> Governments and reformers argued that labour in factories must be regulated and the state had an obligation to provide welfare for poor. Legislation that followed had the effect of moving work out of factories into urban homes. Families and women, in particular, preferred it because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}

Home-based manufacturing operations were active year-round. Families willingly deployed their children in these income generating home enterprises.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labour|last=Freedman|first=Russell|publisher=Sandpiper|year=1998|isbn=978-0395797266}}</ref> In many cases, men worked from home. In France, over 58% of garment workers operated out of their homes; in Germany, the number of full-time home operations nearly doubled between 1882 and 1907; and in the United States, millions of families operated out of home seven days a week, year round to produce garments, shoes, artificial flowers, feathers, match boxes, toys, umbrellas and other products. Children aged 5–14 worked alongside the parents. Home-based operations and child labour in Australia, Britain, Austria and other parts of the world was common. Rural areas similarly saw families deploying their children in agriculture. In 1946, [[Frieda S. Miller]] – then Director of the [[United States Department of Labor]] – told the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) that these home-based operations offered "low wages, long hours, child labour, unhealthy and insanitary working conditions".<ref name=ep99/><ref>{{cite book|title=Miller, Frieda S. Papers, 1909-1973|last=Miller|first=Frieda |publisher=Radcliff College |year=1979|url=http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00235|access-date=15 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515035148/http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00235 |archive-date=15 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Great Agricultural Transition: Crisis, Change, and Social Consequences of Twentieth Century US Farming|author1=Linda Lobao |author2=Katherine Meyer |journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume= 27|year=2001|pages=103–124|jstor=2678616|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.103}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=World Market, State, and Family Farm: Social Bases of Household Production in the Era of Wage Labour|last=Friedmann|first=Harriet|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|year=1978|volume=20|issue=4|pages=545–586|doi=10.1017/S001041750001255X| s2cid=153765098 }}</ref>

===21st century===
{{See also|Children's rights}}
[[File:Enfants au travail dans le monde.png|thumb|upright=2.0|Map for child labour worldwide in the 10–14 age group, in 2003, per World Bank data.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://data.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/wdi05fulltext.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810035500/http://data.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/wdi05fulltext.pdf|url-status=dead|chapter=Table 2.8: Assessing Vulnerability |pages=77–79 |title=2005 World Development Indicators |publisher=The World Bank|archivedate=10 August 2013}}</ref> The data is incomplete, as many countries do not collect or report child labour data (coloured gray). The colour code is as follows: yellow (<10% of children working), green (10–20%), orange (20–30%), red (30–40%) and black (>40%). Some nations such as [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mali]] and [[Ethiopia]] have more than half of all children aged 5–14 at work to help provide for their families.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Child Statistics|website=UNICEF DATA |url=http://www.childinfo.org/labour_countrydata.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630033018/|archive-date=30 June 2012}}</ref>]]

Child labour is still common in many parts of the world. Estimates for child labour vary. It ranges between 250 and 304 million, if children aged 5–17 involved in any economic activity are counted. If light occasional work is excluded, ILO estimates there were 153 million child labourers aged 5–14 worldwide in 2008. This is about 20 million less than ILO estimate for child labourers in 2004. Some 60 per cent of the child labour was involved in agricultural activities such as farming, dairy, fisheries and forestry. Another 25% of child labourers were in service activities such as retail, hawking goods, restaurants, load and transfer of goods, storage, picking and recycling trash, polishing shoes, domestic help, and other services. The remaining 15% laboured in assembly and manufacturing in informal economy, home-based enterprises, factories, mines, packaging salt, operating machinery, and such operations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Child labour in Kyrgyz coal mines |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6955202.stm |access-date=2007-08-25 | date=24 August 2007 |first=Natalia |last=Antelava}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Global child labour developments: Measuring trends from 2004 to 2008|author1=Yacouba Diallo |author2=Frank Hagemann |author3=Alex Etienne |author4=Yonca Gurbuzer |author5=Farhad Mehran |publisher=ILO|year=2010|isbn=978-92-2-123522-4}}</ref><ref name="unicef">{{cite web |title=The State of the World's Children 1997 |work=UNICEF |url=http://www.unicef.org/sowc97/report/ |access-date=2007-04-15 |archive-date=9 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809110938/http://www.unicef.org/sowc97/report/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Two out of three child workers work alongside their parents, in unpaid family work situations. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants. Child labour predominantly occurs in the rural areas (70%) and informal urban sector (26%).

Contrary to popular belief, most child labourers are employed by their parents rather than in manufacturing or formal economy. Children who work for pay or in-kind compensation are usually found in rural settings as opposed to urban centres. Less than 3% of child labour aged 5–14 across the world work outside their household, or away from their parents.<ref name="ep05" />

Child labour accounts for 22% of the workforce in Asia, 32% in Africa, 17% in Latin America, 1% in the US, Canada, Europe and other wealthy nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/237384/toolkitfr/pdf/facts.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717172418/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/237384/toolkitfr/pdf/facts.pdf|url-status=unfit|title=Facts and figures on child labour|archive-date=2007-07-17|website=info.worldbank.org}}</ref> The proportion of child labourers varies greatly among countries and even regions inside those countries. Africa has the highest percentage of children aged 5–17 employed as child labour, and a total of over 65 million. Asia, with its larger population, has the largest number of children employed as child labour at about 114 million. Latin America and the Caribbean region have lower overall population density, but at 14 million child labourers has high incidence rates too.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Tackling child labour: From commitment to action|title=[[International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour]] |publisher= ILO|year=2012|isbn=978-92-2-126374-6|chapter-url=http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_181875/lang--en/index.htm}}</ref>

[[File:Tyre shop worker1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A boy repairing a tire in [[Gambia]]]]
Accurate present day child labour information is difficult to obtain because of disagreements between data sources as to what constitutes child labour. In some countries, government policy contributes to this difficulty. For example, the overall extent of child labour in China is unclear due to the government categorising child labour data as "highly secret".<ref>{{cite web|title=Children's Rights: China|publisher=Law Library of Congress, United States|year=2012|url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/child-rights/china.php#Child%20Labour%20and%20Exploitation}}</ref> China has enacted regulations to prevent child labour; still, the practice of child labour is reported to be a persistent problem within China, generally in agriculture and low-skill service sectors as well as small workshops and manufacturing enterprises.<ref>{{cite web|title=The dark side of labour in China|last=Lepillez |first=Karine|year=2009 |url=http://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/slavery/china.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China: End Child Labour in State Schools |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=4 December 2007 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2007/12/02/china-end-child-labour-state-schools |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111234752/http://www.hrw.org/news/2007/12/02/china-end-child-labour-state-schools |archive-date=11 January 2015 }}</ref>

In 2014, the [[U.S. Department of Labor]] issued a ''[[List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]]'', where China was attributed 12 goods, the majority of which were produced by both underage children and indentured labourers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/|title=List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor|website=www.dol.gov |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20140708063021/https://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ |archive-date=8 July 2014}}</ref> The report listed electronics, garments, toys, and coal, among other goods.

The Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 survey<ref>{{cite web|title=Conflict and economic downturn cause global increase in reported child labour violations – 40% of countries now rated 'extreme risk' by Maplecroft|date=5 January 2012|publisher=Maplecroft|url=http://maplecroft.com/about/news/child_labour_2012.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20120111090517/http://maplecroft.com/about/news/child_labour_2012.html |archive-date=11 January 2012}}</ref> reports that 76 countries pose extreme child labour complicity risks for companies operating worldwide. The ten highest risk countries in 2012, ranked in decreasing order, were: Myanmar, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Burundi, Pakistan and Ethiopia. Of the major growth economies, Maplecroft ranked Philippines 25th riskiest, India 27th, China 36th, Vietnam 37th, Indonesia 46th, and Brazil 54th, all of them rated to involve extreme risks of child labour uncertainties, to corporations seeking to invest in developing world and import products from emerging markets.