Editing Chinese art (section)

==History and development==
===Neolithic pottery===
{{Main|Yangshao culture|Peiligang culture}}

Early forms of art in China are found in the Neolithic [[Yangshao culture]], which dates back to the 6th millennium BC. Archeological findings such as those at the [[Banpo]] have revealed that the Yangshao made pottery; early [[ceramics (art)|ceramics]] were unpainted and most often cord-marked. The first decorations were fish and human faces, but these eventually evolved into symmetrical-geometric abstract designs, some painted.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The most distinctive feature of Yangshao culture was the extensive use of painted pottery, especially human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike the later [[Longshan culture]], the Yangshao culture did not use [[pottery wheel]]s in pottery making. Excavations have found that children were buried in painted pottery jars.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

<gallery widths="120px" heights="170px">
File:PeiligangCulture-RedPotWithTwoEars-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg|A red pot with two "ears"; by [[Peiligang culture]]; 6000–5200 BC; ceramic; [[Shanghai Museum]]
File:半山类型圆点纹彩陶壶.jpg|Dotted pottery pot, semi-mountain type; by [[Yangshao culture]] from China; 2700–2300 BCE; [[Gansu Provincial Museum]] ([[Lanzhou]])
File:MET DP257874.jpg|Jar; 2650–2350 BC; earthenware with painted decoration; height: 34&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
File:Painted Pottery Pot with Geometric Lattice Pattern.jpg|Pot with geometric lattice pattern; by [[Majiayao culture]]; 2600–2300 BC; painted potter; Shanghai Museum
</gallery>

===Jade culture===
{{Main|Liangzhu culture}}
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| image1            = Hongshan Culture Jade Humanoid Figure.jpg
| caption1          = Jade humanoid, [[Hongshan culture]] (4700–2900 BCE).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dillon |first1=Michael |title=Encyclopedia of Chinese History |date=1 December 2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-81716-1 |page=485 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UAlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA485 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aurora Museum page 上海震旦博物馆 |url=http://www.auroramuseum.cn/en/aurora/cultural/cultural2.html |website=auroramuseum.cn |language=en |access-date=October 27, 2023 |archive-date=May 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502060248/http://www.auroramuseum.cn/en/aurora/cultural/cultural2.html }}</ref>
| image2            = Shang Jade Human Figure.jpg
| caption2          = [[Shang dynasty]] (1600–1045 BCE) jade human figure ([[Tomb of Fu Hao]])
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}}

The Liangzhu culture was the last Neolithic Jade culture in the [[Yangtze River Delta]] and was spaced over a period of about 1,300 years. The Jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked, large ritual jades such as [[Cong (jade)|Cong]] cylinders, [[Bi (jade)|Bi]] discs, Yue axes and also pendants and decorations in the form of chiseled open-work plaques, plates and representations of small birds, turtles and fish. The Liangzhu Jade has a white, milky bone-like aspect due to its [[tremolite]] rock origin and influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

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<gallery>

File:Chinese - Cong - Walters 42340 - Profile.jpg|''[[Cong (vessel)|Cong]]'', 3rd millennium BCE
File:Ring with coiled dragon design.jpg|Two-dragon ring, early Shang dynasty (2nd millennium BCE)
File:Dinastia zhou occ.le, drago decorativo in giada, 770-256 ac. ca..JPG|Jade dragon, [[Western Zhou]]
File:Earliest Chinese Iron Sword.JPG|Rusted Zhou-era [[Jian]] with a jade hilt, c.9th century BCE
File:十六节龙凤玉挂饰，2015-04-06 06.jpg|Chain of 16 carved jade pieces locked onto each other; 8th century BCE, Chu State.

</gallery>

=== Bronze casting ===
{{Main|Chinese ritual bronzes}}
[[File:商 青銅方鼎-Rectangular Cauldron (Fangding) MET DP140736.jpg|thumb|left|Rectangular cauldron (fangding); 12th–11th century BC; bronze; height: 22.9 cm, width: 15.2 cm, depth: 17.8 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)]]

[[File:Bronze Square Table Stand Decorated with Dragon-and-phoenix.jpg|thumb|left|Bronze square table supported by dragons and phoenix, [[Warring States]]]]
The [[Bronze Age]] in China began with the [[Xia dynasty]]. Examples from this period have been recovered from ruins of the [[Erlitou culture]], in Shanxi, and include complex but unadorned utilitarian objects. In the following [[Shang dynasty]] more elaborate objects, including many ritual vessels, were crafted. The Shang are remembered for their bronze casting, noted for its clarity of detail. Shang bronzesmiths usually worked in foundries outside the cities to make ritual vessels, and sometimes weapons and chariot fittings as well. The bronze vessels were receptacles for storing or serving various solids and liquids used in the performance of sacred ceremonies. Some forms such as the ''ku'' and ''jue'' can be very graceful, but the most powerful pieces are the ''[[ding (vessel)|ding]]'', sometimes described as having an "air of ferocious majesty".{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

It is typical of the developed Shang style that all available space is decorated, most often with stylized forms of real and imaginary animals. The most common motif is the ''[[taotie]]'', which shows a mythological being presented frontally as though squashed onto a horizontal plane to form a symmetrical design. The early significance of ''taotie'' is not clear, but myths about it existed around the late [[Zhou dynasty]]. It was considered to be variously a covetous man banished to guard a corner of heaven against evil monsters; or a monster equipped with only a head which tries to devour men but hurts only itself.

The function and appearance of bronzes changed gradually from the Shang to the Zhou. They shifted from being used in religious rites to more practical purposes. By the [[Warring States period]], bronze vessels had become objects of aesthetic enjoyment. Some were decorated with social scenes, such as from a banquet or hunt; whilst others displayed abstract patterns inlaid with gold, silver, or precious and semiprecious stones.

Bronze artifacts also have significant meaning and roles in the Han dynasty as well. People used them for funerary purposes which reflect the aesthetic and artistic qualities of the Han dynasty.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Zebin|first=Li|date=September 2013|title=FASHION AND RITUALS OF THE HAN DYNASTY: Cultural Relics of the Royal Houses of Jiangsu.|journal=Orientations|volume=44|pages=5–7|via=Ebscohost}}</ref> Many bronze vessels excavated from tombs in Jiangsu Province, China, have various shapes like Ding, Hu, and Xun which represent traditional Chinese aesthete.<ref name=":2" /> These vessels are classical representations of Chinese celestial art forms which play a great role in ancient Chinese's communication with spirits of their ancestors.<ref name=":2" /> Other than the vessels, bronze weapons, daily items, and musical instruments are also found in royal Han families' tomb in Jiangsu. Being able to put a full set of Bianzhong in ones tomb signifies his or her status and class in the Han dynasty since this particular type of instrument is only acquired and owned by royal and wealth families.<ref name=":2" /> Apparently, Bianzhong and music are also used as a path for the Han rulers to communication with their Gods.<ref name=":2" /> The excavation of Bianzhong, a typical and royal instrument found in ancient China, emphasizes the development of complex music systems in the Han dynasty.<ref name=":2" /> The set of Bianzhong can vary in many cases; for example, a specific excavation of Bianzhong from Jiangsu Province include different sets of bells, like Niuzhong and Yongzhong bells, and many of them appear in animal forms like the dragon, a traditional Chinese spiritual animal.<ref name=":2" />

Shang bronzes became appreciated as works of art from the [[Song dynasty]], when they were collected and prized not only for their shape and design but also for the various green, blue green, and even reddish patinas created by chemical action as they lay buried in the ground. The study of early Chinese bronze casting is a specialized field of art history.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - black pottery goblet.jpg|[[Longshan culture|Longshan]] goblet; circa 2500–2000 BC; Excavated at [[Jiaoxian]] in [[Shandong]], 1975)
File:青铜人头像Aa.jpg|[[Sanxingdui]] bronze head, 2nd millennium BCE

File:Ⅰ号大型青铜神树.jpg|Sacred bronze tree, [[Sanxingdui]]

File:MET DP219959.jpg|Altar set; late 11th century BC; bronze; overall (table): height: 18.1&nbsp;cm (7{{fraction|1|8}} in.), width: 46.4&nbsp;cm (18{{fraction|1|4}} in.), depth: 89.9&nbsp;cm (35{{fraction|3|8}} in.); [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City, U.S.)
File:Min Er Quan Bronze Square Lei, Shang dynasty, Hunan Museum, picture2.jpg|Square ''Lei'', Shang dynasty, 2nd millennium BCE
File:Square zun with four sheep 01.jpg|Square zun with four sheep-head ornaments, Shang dynasty 
File:HouMuWuDingFullView.jpg|[[Houmuwu ding|Houmuwu ''ding'']], the largest ancient bronze ever found; 1300–1046 BCE; [[National Museum of China]].
File:Liu Ding.jpg|Ding with Taotie engravings from the late Shang, 2nd millennium BCE
File:Da He ding 1.jpg|[[Da He ding|Da He ''ding'']] ({{zhi|c=大禾方鼎|p=Dà Hé fāngdǐng}}); Shang dynasty; [[Hunan Museum]]. This ritual bronze is one of the very rare vessels that is decorated with human faces
File:Chinese ritual wine server (guang).jpg|[[Ritual wine server (guang), Indianapolis|Ritual wine server (guang)]]; 1100 BC; [[Indianapolis Museum of Art]].<ref name="IMA">{{Citation|publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]]| title =Ritual wine server (guang)|year = 2012 |url =http://www.imamuseum.org/collections/artwork/ritual-wine-server-guang| access-date = 21 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="handbook">{{cite book|last=Mino|first=Yutaka|author2=Robinson, James |title=Beauty and Tranquility: The Eil Lilly Collection of Chinese Art|publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]]|pages=100–101|location=Indianapolis|year=1983|isbn=978-0-936260-14-3}}</ref>
File:Taibao Ding.jpg|Taibao Ding from the Western Zhou, unearthed in [[Shandong]]; c. 10th century BCE
File:大盂鼎 Da Yu ding.jpg|The [[Da Yu ding]]; 1054 BC (Western Zhou); height: {{convert|101.9|cm|in|abbr=on}}, width: {{convert|77.8|cm|in|abbr=on}}; discovered in 1849, [[Mei County]], Shaanxi.
File:Da Ke ding.jpg|[[Da Ke ding|Da Ke ''ding'']]; Western Zhou dynasty; height: {{convert|93.1|cm|in|abbr=on}}, width: {{convert|75.6|cm|in|abbr=on}} (bore) & {{convert|74.9|cm|in|abbr=on}} (inside diameter); discovered in 1890, at Famen Town ([[Fufeng County]], Shaanxi); [[Shanghai Museum]]
File:Dinastia zhou occidentale, campana (lai zhong), da meixian (shaanxi), 800-700 ac ca.jpg|Bell (lai zhong); 800–700 BC (Western Zhou dynasty); 70.3 × 37 × 26.6&nbsp;cm (27{{fraction|5|8}} × 14{{fraction|9|16}} × 10{{fraction|7|16}} in.); from Meixian, Shaanxi); [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]. In ancient China music and ritual had political significance and were linked inseparably to the power of states
File:Bronze jin from Henan.jpg|A bronze stand for ceremonial vessels; excavated from the tomb of the son of [[King Zhuang of Chu]] (r. 613–591 BCE)
File:Bronze Shi (wild boar) Zun, Shang dynasty, Hunan Museum, 2018070601.jpg|[[Shi zun|Shi ''zun'']]; 1600–1046 BC; height: {{convert|40|cm|in|abbr=on}}; discovered at Chuanxingshan ([[Xiangtan County]], Hunan); Hunan Museum
</gallery>

===Zhou dynasty ({{circa|1046}} – 256 BCE)===
During the Zhou period, few sculptures, especially sculptures of human or animal form, are recorded in the extant archaeology, and there does not appear to have been much of a sculptural tradition.<ref name="The First Emperor and sculpture in">{{cite journal |last1=Nickel |first1=Lukas |title=The First Emperor and sculpture in China |journal=  Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|date=October 2013 |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=413–414 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X13000487  |language=en |issn=0041-977X |quote=Sculpture as an artistic medium was widely employed in the arts of Greece and the Hellenistic East, but played only a minor role in ancient East Asia. This changed dramatically with the First Emperor of China (...) Naturalistic sculpture was entirely unknown. No long-standing sculptural tradition preceded the making of the First Emperor's famous terracotta warriors. No earlier or contemporary member of the Chinese elite had demonstrated any significant interest in sculpture at all.}}</ref><ref name="NL">{{cite journal |last1=Nickel |first1=Lukas |title=The First Emperor and sculpture in China |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |date=October 2013 |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=416–418 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X13000487  |language=en |issn=0041-977X |quote=From the centuries immediately preceding the Qin Dynasty again we know of only a few depictions of the human figure (...) figures of people and animals were very rare exceptions to the conventional imagery of the Zhou period (...) Depictions of the human figure were not a common part of the representational canon in China before the Qin Dynasty (...) In von Falkenhausen's words, "nothing in the archaeological record prepares one for the size, scale, and technically accomplished execution of the First Emperor's terracotta soldiers". For his contemporaries, the First Emperor's sculptures must have been something dramatically new.}}</ref><!--obviously the Qin and Qin Shi Huang postdate the Zhou Dynasty; he conquered that land--> Among the very few such depictions known in China before that date: four wooden figurines<ref>[https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/331227753 Image from Liangdaicun Ruiguo Relics Museum (梁带村芮国遗址博物馆)]</ref> from Liangdaicun (梁帶村) in Hancheng (韓城), [[Shaanxi]], possibly dating to the 9th century BCE; two wooden human figurines of foreigners possibly representing sedan chair bearers from a [[Qin state]] tomb in Longxian (隴縣), Shaanxi, from about 700 BCE; and more numerous statuettes from around 5th century bronze musicians in a miniature house from Shaoxing (紹興) in [[Zhejiang]]; a 4th-century human-shaped lamp stand from Pingshan (平山) county royal tomb, [[Hebei]]. The ''[[Taerpo horserider]]'' is a Zhou-era [[Qin (state)|Warrior-State Qin]] terracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery (塔兒坡墓) near [[Xianyang]] in [[Shaanxi]], dated to the 4th–3rd century BCE. Another nearly-identical statuette is known, from the same tomb. Small holes in his hands suggest that he was originally holding reins in one hand, and a weapon in the other.<ref name="MK"/> This is the earliest known representation of a cavalryman in China.<ref name="MK">{{cite journal |last1=Khayutina |first1=Maria |title=From wooden attendants to terracotta warriors |journal=Bernisches Historisches Museum the Newsletter |date=Autumn 2013 |volume=65 |page=2, Fig.4 |url=https://www.iias.asia/sites/iias/files/nwl_article/2019-05/IIAS_NL65_1213.pdf |quote=Other noteworthy terracotta figurines were found in 1995 in a 4th–3rd century BCE tomb in the Taerpo cemetery near Xianyang in Shaanxi Province, where the last Qin capital of the same name was located from 350 to 207 BCE. These are the earliest representations of cavalrymen in China discovered up to this day. One of this pair can now be seen at the exhibition in Bern (Fig. 4). A small, ca. 23 cm tall, figurine represents a man sitting on a settled horse. He stretches out his left hand, whereas his right hand points downwards. Holes pierced through both his fists suggest that he originally held the reins of his horse in one hand and a weapon in the other. The rider wears a short jacket, trousers and boots – elements of the typical outfit of the inhabitants of the Central Asian steppes. Trousers were first introduced in the early Chinese state of Zhao during the late 4th century BCE, as the Chinese started to learn horse riding from their nomadic neighbours. The state of Qin should have adopted the nomadic clothes about the same time. But the figurine from Taerpo also has some other features that may point to its foreign identity: a hood-like headgear with a flat wide crown framing his face and a high, pointed nose.}} Also in {{cite book |last1=Khayutina |first1=Maria |title=Qin: the eternal emperor and his terracotta warriors |date=2013 |publisher=Neue Zürcher Zeitung |location=Zürich |isbn=978-3-03823-838-6 |page=cat. no. 314 |edition=1. Aufl}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">

File:20090822 Shanghai Museum 3284.jpg| [[Spring and Autumn period]] ox-shaped vessel, 6th century BCE

File:Changshadragon.jpg|[[Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon]], 4th century BCE

File:Standing deer (2), Western Zhou, 11-9th century BCE.jpg|Western Zhou, 11-9th century BCE

File:Gold sword hilt Eastern Zhou BM.jpg|Gold sword hilt, Eastern Zhou

File:Silver belt buckle with inlaid gold and jade animal head, NMC.jpg|Silver belt buckle with inlaid gold and jade, Warring States, c. 4th century BCE

File:Bronze dui vessel with inlaid geometric cloud pattern.JPG| Bronze [[Dui (vessel)|dui]] vessel with inlaid geometric cloud pattern, Eastern Zhou

</gallery>

==== Chu and Southern culture (c. 1030 BC – 223 BC) ====

[[File:20230208 Painted lacquer lidded dou-bowl carved wirh dragons.jpg|thumb|300px|Lacquer dou-vessel from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng c. 433 BCE]]
A rich source of art in early China was the state of [[Chu (state)|Chu]], which developed in the Yangtze River valley. Excavations of Chu tombs have found painted wooden sculptures, jade disks, glass beads, musical instruments, and an assortment of [[lacquerware]]. Many of the lacquer objects are finely painted, red on black or black on red. A site in [[Changsha]], Hunan province, has revealed some of the oldest paintings on silk discovered to date.

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<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4>

File:Lacquer bowls of cloud design, Warring States, Jiangling, Hubei, Jingzhou Museum.jpg|Chu wares were elegant and sophisticated, they directly influenced later Han-era wares.
 
File:Lacquer box of phoenix pattern, Warring States, Zaoyang, Hubei, Hubei Museum.jpg|Heart-shaped lacquer box with [[fenghuang|phoenix]] pattern.

File:20230208 Painted lacquer box in the shape of two rear-to-rear pigs.jpg|Painted lacquer box in the shape of 2 rear-to-rear pigs.

File:虎座鸟架鼓（九连墩）.jpg|The [[Fenghuang]] was a popular motif in Chu art, whereas the dragon was more popular in the other states to its north.

File:Warring States Lacquered Dou (9979386085).jpg|Lacquer ''dou'' with phoenix base.

File:Warring States Lacquered Figure, Chu State (10162601104).jpg|Lacquered yuren (羽人) figure on a toad stand

File:彩漆木雕小座屏，2014-04-06 05.jpg|Small lacquered screen, Chu state, 5th century BCE

File:Lacquerware from State of Ch'u.jpg|A lacquerware makeup case from the Jingmen Tomb

File:Lacquer painting from Ch'u State.jpg|Close-up of the previous ware with intricate details of pre-imperial [[Hanfu]]

</gallery>

=== Early imperial China (221 BCE – 220 CE) ===

==== Qin art ====
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| image1   = Qin Terracotta Attendant (grey background).jpg
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| footer=A ''[[Terracotta Army]]'' attendant, and one of the ''[[The Acrobats|Acrobats]]''. These were meant to guard the [[Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor]], 210 BCE
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The [[Terracotta Army]], inside the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, consists of more than 7,000 life-size tomb [[terracotta]] figures of warriors and horses buried with the self-proclaimed first [[Emperor of China]] [[Qin Shi Huang]] in 210–209 BC. The figures were painted before being placed into the vault. The original colors were visible when the pieces were first unearthed. However, exposure to air caused the pigments to fade, so today the unearthed figures appear terracotta in color. The figures are in several poses including standing infantry and kneeling archers, as well as charioteers with horses. Each figure's head appears to be unique, showing a variety of facial features and expressions as well as hair styles. The spectacular realism displayed by the sculptures is an evidence of the advancement of art during the Qin dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Art history|last=Stokstad|first=Marilyn|author2=Cothren, Michael Watt|isbn=978-0-13-447588-2|edition= Sixth|location=Upper Saddle River|publisher=Pearson |oclc=953927607|date = 2018}}</ref> It is without precedent in the historical record of art in East Asia.<ref name="The First Emperor and sculpture in"/><ref name="NL"/>

A music instrument called Qin zither was developed during the Qin dynasty.
The aesthetic components have always been as important as the functional parts on a musical instrument in Chinese history. The Qin zither has seven strings. Although Qin zither can sometimes remind people of corruptive history times, it is often considered as a delivery of peace and harmony.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kouwenhoven|first=Frank|date=2001|title=Meaning and Structure: The Case of Chinese Qin (Zither) Music|journal=British Journal of Ethnomusicology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=39–62|doi=10.1080/09681220108567309|jstor=3060771|s2cid=191483792}}</ref>

==== Han art ====

[[File:Western Han Terracotta Army of Yangjiawan 10.jpg|thumb|300px|Western Han miniature pottery infantry and cavalry from [[Yangjiawan terracotta army|Yangjiawan]]. After the Qin period, funeral figurines were much smaller, on average {{convert|60|cm|in|sp=us}} in height. Similar armies were found in [[Han Yang Ling]], the tomb complex of [[Emperor Jing of Han]] (''r''. 157 – 141&nbsp;BCE) and his wife [[Empress Wang Zhi]] (d. 126 BCE), with over 40,000 miniature pottery figures.<ref>Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: the Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., pp 34–36, {{ISBN|0-500-05090-2}}.</ref>]]During the Qin dynasty, Chinese font, measurement systems, currency were all standardized in order to bring further unification.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Tsao|first=Ruby|date=Jan–Mar 2017|title=The Great Wall Of China|journal=Chinese American Forum|volume=32|pages=34–37|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref> [[Great Wall of China|The Great Wall of China]] was expanded as a defensive construction against the northern intruders.<ref name=":1" /> 
The [[Han dynasty]] was known for [[jade burial suit]]s. One of the earliest known depictions of a landscape in Chinese art comes from a pair of hollow-tile door panels from a Western Han dynasty tomb near [[Zhengzhou]], dated 60 BCE.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 plate">Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China'': Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Plate CCCXII</ref> A scene of continuous depth recession is conveyed by the zigzag of lines representing roads and garden walls, giving the impression that one is looking down from the top of a hill.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 plate"/> This artistic landscape scene was made by the repeated impression of standard stamps on the clay while it was still soft and not yet fired.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 plate"/> However, the oldest known landscape art scene tradition in the classical sense of painting is a work by [[Zhan Ziqian]] of the [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618).

Other than jade artifacts, bronze is another favorite medium for artists since it is hard and durable. Bronze mirrors have been mass-produced in the Han dynasty (206 BCE{{snd}}220 CE), and almost every tomb excavated that has been dated as Han dynasty has mirror in the burial.<ref name=":0" /> The reflective side is usually made by a composition of bronze, copper, tin, and lead.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Yuejin|date=September 1994|title=Mirror, Death, and Rhetoric: Reading Late Han Chinese Bronze Artifacts|journal=Art Bulletin|volume=LXXVI|issue=3|pages=511–534|doi=10.1080/00043079.1994.10786601}}</ref> The word "mirror" means "to reflect" or "to look into" in Chinese, so bronze mirrors have been used as a trope for reflecting the reality.<ref name=":0" /> The ancient Chinese believe that mirror can act as a representation of the reality, which could make them more aware of the current situation; also, mirrors are used as a media to convey or present a reflection of the past events.<ref name=":0" /> The bronze mirrors made in the Han dynasty always have complex decorations on their non-reflective side; some of them consist narratives that tell stories.<ref name=":0" /> The narratives themselves always reflect the common but essential theories to the Han people's lives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Högerl|first1=Johann|last2=Tensi|first2=Hans M.|last3=Schulten|first3=Caroline|date=1996-05-01|title=Analyzing the metallurgical and cultural backgrounds of two Han-dynasty bronze-mirror fragments|journal=JOM|language=en|volume=48|issue=5|pages=57–59|doi=10.1007/BF03222946|bibcode=1996JOM....48e..57S|s2cid=138946370|issn=1543-1851}}</ref>

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">

File:Green glazed pottery dog Eastern Han 25CE 220CE.jpg|Glazed pottery dog, with collar patterned onto the surface; Eastern Han, 1st century CE.
File:Lidded Cosmetic Box (Lian) with Scrolling Clouds and Supernatural Creatures LACMA AC1997.50.1.1-.2.jpg|Han dynasty lacquerwares were famed for their intricate and elegant designs.
File:Lacquer Wine-Cup Container.jpg|Set of lacquered wine cups, with a typical pre-imperial design.
File:Mawangdui Lacquer 2.jpg|Cooler and ladle, Mawangdui
File:Woven silk, Western Han Dynasty.jpg|sericulture and silk embroidery reached a new high in the prosperous years of the Han
File:Mawangdui Han Second Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113243533).jpg|Abstract yet intricate patterns were found on coffins of lady [[Xin Zhui]] (217 BC–168 BC)
File:Mawangdui Han Third Coffin from Tomb -1 (10112971305).jpg
File:Mawangdui Han Third Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113109063).jpg|Delicate motifs relating to the afterlife are depicted around the meandering clouds on this inner coffin.

File:Elite Family with Entertainers (10112546006).jpg|Banqueting figurines from [[Mawangdui]], 2nd century BCE
File:Mawangdui Figures of Musicians (10112575404).jpg|Musicians playing [[guzheng]] and [[Sheng (instrument)|sheng]], 2nd century BCE
File:Mawangdui silk banner from tomb no1.jpg|Silk funerary banner, 2nd century BCE
File:Beijing.China printing museum.Han dynasty.pattern printing.jpg|Translucent silk was reserved for the highest of nobility as it was very difficult to produce.

File:China qing blue.JPG|Painted pottery pot with dragon and phoenix relief, as well as [[taotie]] designs for the lug handles.
File:Si shen yun qi Painting form Liu Fa tomb.jpg|Flying dragon from the Liu Fa tomb, Western Han
File:Guardians of Day and Night, Han Dynasty.jpg|These figures represent [[Chinese zodiac|guardian spirits of certain hours of the day]]- the left figure represents the first hour (midnight).
File:Eastern han husband and wife banquet mural BM2 Zhucun Luoyang 洛阳朱村东汉墓BM2夫妇宴饮图.jpg|Han couple banquet together, from [[Luoyang]] c. 220 CE
File:China.Terracotta statues007.jpg|A female servant and a male advisor in Han [[shenyi]], terracotta figurines from Western Han.

File:Bronze Chimera, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Bronze statuette of a [[qilin]], 1st century AD 
File:Jade Drinking Vessel at Nanyue King Museum.jpg|Jade drinking vessel from Nannie, 1st century BCE
File:Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|Western Han tomb fresco depicting the philosopher [[Confucius]]; 202 BCE{{snd}}9 CE; from [[Dongping County]], Shandong
File:Gentlemen in conversation, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Two gentlemen engrossed in conversation while two others look on, a painting on a ceramic tile from a tomb near [[Luoyang]], Henan, dated to the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD)
File:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - pictorial brick depicting a courtyard scene.jpg|pictorial brick depicting a courtyard, 2nd century BCE
File:Gold Seal with Dragon Knob 01.jpg|Seals such as this one symbolised the authority of the kings and emperors of the Han.
File:Eastern Han Dynasty tomb fresco of chariots, horses, and men, Luoyang 2.jpg|A section of an [[Eastern Han]] (25–220 AD) fresco of 9 chariots, 50 horses, and over 70 men, from a tomb in [[Luoyang]], China
File:Gansu Museum 2007 257.jpg|[[Flying Horse of Gansu]]. 
File:Dahuting mural, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Mural of the Dahuting Tomb ({{zhi|t=打虎亭漢墓 |p=Dáhǔtíng hàn mù}}) of the late Eastern Han, located in [[Zhengzhou]]
File:七层连阁绘彩陶楼1394.jpg|Miniature model of a residential block. Recovered from a burial site.
File:Han pottery manor 02.jpg|A vast number of miniature models allows us an insight into the architectural styles of the day.
File:Boucle Han Chine Guimet 2910.jpg|A golden belt buckle with dragon motif, Western Han

File:Dahuting tomb mural showing hanfu dress, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|Mural of the Dahuting Tomb ({{zhi|t=打虎亭漢墓 |p=Dáhǔtíng hàn mù}}) of the late Eastern Han, located in Zhengzhou, Henan
File:Woman with a mirror, China, unearthed at Songjialin, Pixian, Sichuan, Eastern Han dynasty, 25-220 AD, ceramic - Sichuan Provincial Museum - Chengdu, China - DSC04768.jpg|An Eastern Han [[Chinese ceramics|ceramic figurine]] of a seated woman with a [[bronze mirror]], unearthed from a tomb of Songjialin, [[Pi County]], Sichuan
File:Silk from Mawangdui.jpg|Heaves of silk with all sorts of intricate designs were found at Mawangdui.
</gallery>

[[File:Dahuting tomb banquet scene, Eastern Han mural.jpg|thumb|center|Mural depicting a banquet at Dahuting|600px]]

{{clear}}

====First monumental stone sculptures (117 BCE)====
[[File:Tomb of Huo Qubing. Horse and head of trampled Xiongnu warrior.jpg|thumb|250px|The monumental stone sculpture of a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior (with detail of the warrior's head) at [[Huo Qubing]]'s Mausoleum, 117 BCE]]
Terracotta statuettes had been known for a long time in China, but there are no known examples of monumental stone statuary before the stone sculptures at the Mausoleum of [[Huo Qubing]] (140–117 BCE), a general of Emperor [[Han Wudi]] who went to the western regions to fight the [[Xiongnu]].<ref name="Duan48">{{Cite journal |author-link= Duan Qingbo | last=Qingbo |first=Duan |date=2022 |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊 |volume=7 |language=en |pages=48–50 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25 |s2cid=251690411 |issn=2059-1632 |doi-access=free |quote=Before the appearance of the large-scale stone sculptures in front of the tomb of Huo Qubing 霍去病 (d. 117 BCE) of the middle Western Han period (see Figure 9), no monumental works of sculptural stone art like this had ever been seen in Qin culture or in those of the other Warring States polities.}}</ref> In literary sources, there is only a single 3rd–4th century CE record of a possible earlier example: two alleged monumental stone statues of ''[[qilin]]'' (Chinese unicorns) said have been set up on top of the tomb of the First Emperor [[Qin Shihuang]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author-link= Duan Qingbo | last=Qingbo |first=Duan |date=2022 |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊 |volume=7 |language=en |pages=48–50 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25 |s2cid=251690411 |issn=2059-1632 |doi-access=free}} quoting the anonymous 3rd century CE "''[[Xijing Zaji|Miscellaneous Notes on the Western Capital]]''"  (西京雜記): "There were two stone statues of qilin [Chinese unicorns]. The flanks of each animal bore carved inscriptions. These once stood atop the tomb mound of the First Emperor of Qin. Their heads stood one zhang and three chi in height [approx. three meters]"</ref> The most famous of Huo Qubing's statues is that of [[:File:Tomb of Huo Qubing. Horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior.jpg|a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior]].<ref name="Duan48"/>

The Mausoleum of Huo Qubing (located in [[Maoling]], the Mausoleum of Han Wudi) has 15 more stone sculptures. These are less naturalistic than the "Horse trampling a Xiongnu", and tend to follow the natural shape of the stone, with details of the figures only emerging in high-relief.<ref>{{Cite journal |author-link= Duan Qingbo | last=Qingbo |first=Duan |date=2022 |title=Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis |journal=Journal of Chinese History 中國歷史學刊 |volume=7 |language=en |pages=48–50 |doi=10.1017/jch.2022.25 |s2cid=251690411 |issn=2059-1632 |doi-access=free |quote=The sixteen large stone sculptures in front of the tomb of the Han general Huo Qubing 霍去病 (ca. 117 BCE), are mostly sculpted following the form of the original stone (see Figure 9). They employ techniques such as sculpting in the round, raised relief, and engraved intaglio lines to carve stone sculptures of oxen, horses, pigs, tigers, sheep, a fantastic beast eating a sheep, a man fighting a bear, a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior, and other images. It is hard to find any evidence in China for this type of crude but concise lifelike rendering before these monuments.}}</ref> Following these early attempts, the usage of monumental stone statues would only develop from the end of the Western Han to the Eastern Han.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=徐 |first1=龙国 |title=山东发现的汉代大型胡人石雕像再研究 |journal=美术研究 (Art Research) |date=2017 |url=http://www.kaogu.cn/uploads/soft/2017/20170912xulongguo.pdf |quote=近年来，考古发现的一些西汉墓葬，如陕西咸阳西汉阳陵、河南商丘梁孝王陵园、[32] 江苏盱眙江都王刘非陵园、江西南昌海昏侯刘贺墓园等，都发现墓葬周围有冢茔、庙寝、门阙、司马道等，此时墓上石刻还没有发展起来，除汉武帝时期的霍去病墓、张骞墓外，其他墓葬均未发现墓上石刻。西汉晚期至东汉时期，墓上石刻逐渐发展起来}}</ref>

Monumental stone statuary would become a major art form from the 4–6th centuries CE with the onset of monumental [[Buddhist sculpture]] in China.<ref>{{cite web |author-link=Duan Qingbo |last1=Qingbo |first1=Duan |title=Persian and Greek Participation in the making of China's First Empire (Video timing: 45:00–47:00) |date=April 9, 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=ASy32tcsYbk&ab_channel=ChinaOnscreen |publisher=Video of 2018 conference at UCLA |language=en}}</ref>
{{clear}}
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:霍去病墓石雕伏虎 - panoramio.jpg|Crouching tiger, Huo Qubing Mausoleum
File:Han Stone Sculpture- Horse Ready to Leap.jpg|Horse Ready to Leap, Huo Qubing Mausoleum
File:Stone Sculpture of Boar.jpg|Crouching boar. Huo Qubing Mausoleum 
</gallery>

=== Period of division (220–581) ===

{{wide image|File:Gu Kaizhi 001.jpg|2400px|''Admonitions Scroll'' by [[Gu Kaizhi]] (348-405), heavily damaged after it was looted during the [[Second Opium War]]}}

==== Influence of Buddhism ====
{{Main|Buddhist art#China|l1=Buddhist art}}
[[Buddhism]] arrived in China around the 1st century CE (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during [[Asoka]]'s reign), and through to the 8th century it became very active and creative in the development of Buddhist art, particularly in the area of statuary. Receiving this distant religion, China soon incorporated strong Chinese traits in its artistic expression.

In the fifth to sixth century the [[Northern dynasties]], rather removed from the original sources of inspiration, tended to develop rather symbolic and abstract modes of representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to be solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its distance from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an accessible, realistic manner, progressively led to a research towards more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art.

<gallery widths="230" heights="230">
File:Mural Worshipping Bodhisattva.jpg|Mural from the [[Mogao caves]], [[Western Wei]], (535-556 A.D.)
File:Dunhuang mural flying apsarasa.jpg|[[Dunhuang]] mural, mid 6th century  
File:Sogdian whirl with large pipa.jpg|Buddhist cave art, a dancer spins while the orchestra plays. 
File:Vairocana, Fengxian Temple, Longmen Grottoes (10240207654).jpg| Vairocana, [[Longmen Grottoes]], 500-900AD
File:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg|An illustration of Sakyamuni's temptation by Mara
File:Grotta nr 158.JPG|Reclining Buddha, High Tang period 
</gallery>

==== Calligraphy ====
In ancient China, painting and [[calligraphy]] were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats and scholar-officials who alone had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush, made of animal hair, and black ink made from pine soot and animal glue. Writing as well as painting was done on silk. But after the invention of paper in the 1st century, silk was gradually replaced by the new and cheaper material. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history and are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are.

[[Wang Xizhi]] was a famous Chinese calligrapher who lived in the 4th century AD. His most famous work is the ''[[Lanting Xu]]'', the preface to a collection of poems. The script was often celebrated as the high point of the [[Semi-cursive script|semi-cursive]] "Running Style" in the history of Chinese calligraphy.

[[Wei Shuo]] was a well-known calligrapher of the [[Eastern Jin dynasty]] who established consequential rules about the [[regular script]]. Her well-known works include ''Famous Concubine Inscription'' (名姬帖 Ming Ji Tie) and ''The Inscription of Wei-shi He'nan'' (衛氏和南帖 Wei-shi He'nan Tie).

==== Painting ====
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = vertical | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Mural paintings of court life in Xu Xianxiu's Tomb, [[Northern Qi dynasty]], 571 AD, located in [[Taiyuan]], [[Shanxi]] province | footer_align = left | image1 = Paintings on north wall of Xu Xianxiu Tomb.jpg | width1 = 250 | caption1  = | image2 = Paintings on east wall of Xu Xianxiu Tomb.jpg | width2 = 250| caption2  = | image3 = Paintings on west wall of Xu Xianxiu Tomb.jpg | width3 = 250| caption3  = }}
[[Gu Kaizhi]] is a celebrated painter of ancient China born in [[Wuxi]]. He wrote three books about painting theory: ''On Painting'' (畫論), ''Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties'' (魏晉名畫記) and ''Painting Yuntai Mountain'' (畫雲臺山記). He wrote, "In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor."
Three of Gu's paintings still survive today: ''[[Admonitions Scroll|Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies]]'', ''Nymph of the Luo River'' (洛神賦), and ''Wise and Benevolent Women''.

There are other examples of Jin dynasty painting from tombs. This includes the ''Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove,'' painted on a brick wall of a tomb located near modern Nanjing and now found in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum. Each of the figures are labeled and shown either drinking, writing, or playing a musical instrument. Other tomb paintings also depict scenes of daily life, such as men plowing fields with teams of oxen.

<gallery>

File:Funerary panels, from the tomb of Sima Jinlong, 484 CE. Datong, Shanxi Province.jpg|Funerary panels, from the tomb of [[Sima Jinlong]], 484 CE
File:Riders on Horseback, Northern Qi Dynasty.jpg|A scene of two horseback riders from a wall painting in the tomb of Lou Rui at [[Taiyuan]], Shanxi, [[Northern Qi]] dynasty (550–577)
File:China ceramics lotus vessel.JPG|Lotus-patterned vase from [[Northern Qi]], 6th century CE
File:Hangzhou Nansong Guanyao Bowuguan 20120518-08.jpg|Lion-shaped candle holder from Western Jin c. 4th century CE
File:Buddhist paintings Yungang.jpg|[[Northern Wei]] murals and painted figurines from the [[Yungang Grottoes]], dated 5th to 6th centuries.
File:Datong 146.jpg
File:Datong 145.jpg
File:Yungang cave9 dougong.jpg

</gallery>

=== The Sui and Tang dynasties (581–960) ===
{{Main|Tang dynasty art}}

[[File:Li Sixun boats.jpg|thumb|200px|''Sailing Boats and a Riverside Mansion'', 7th century original by [[Li Sixun]].]]

==== Buddhist architecture and sculpture ====
Following a transition under the [[Sui dynasty]], Buddhist sculpture of the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] evolved towards a markedly lifelike expression. As a consequence of the dynasty's openness to foreign trade and influences through the [[Silk Road]], Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form, inspired by the Greco-Buddhist art of Central Asia.

However, foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang|Wuzong]] outlawed all "foreign" religions (including [[Nestorian]] Christianity, [[Zoroastrianism]] and Buddhism) in order to support indigenous [[Taoism]]. He confiscated Buddhist possessions and forced the faith to go underground, therefore affecting the ulterior development of the religion and its arts in China.

Glazed or painted [[earthenware]] [[Tang dynasty tomb figures]] are famous, and well-represented in museums around the world. Most wooden Tang sculptures have not survived, though representations of the Tang international style can still be seen in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], Japan. The longevity of stone sculpture has proved much greater. Some of the finest examples can be seen at [[Longmen Grottoes|Longmen]], near [[Luoyang]], [[Yungang]] near [[Datong]], and [[Bingling Temple]] in [[Gansu]].
One of the most famous Buddhist [[Chinese pagoda]]s is the [[Giant Wild Goose Pagoda]], built in 652 AD.

{{clear}}

<gallery widths="140px" heights="200px">
File:Anonymous-Bodhisattva Leading the Way.jpg|Tang dynasty painting from [[Dunhuang]].

File:T'ang Architecture in the Mo-kao Fresco 1.jpg|Fresco from [[Dunhuang]] depicting typical Tang architecture
File:Varjapani magao caves.jpg| Painting of Varjapani
File:Tang horse.jpg|A Chinese [[Tang dynasty]] tri-color [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]]d porcelain horse ({{circa}} 700 AD), using yellow, green and white colors.
File:Freer SacklerDSCF8036.JPG|Central Asian influence can be seen in the shape of this cup.
</gallery>
{{wide image|File:Xiao and Xiang rivers.jpg|1000px|dir=ltr|align-cap=center|''[[Eight Views of Xiaoxiang|Views of Xiaoxiang]]'' by [[Dong Yuan]](932-962). Dong is considered as one of the originators of [[Shan shui|landscape painting]] styles; the scales of such paintings were often huge, with minuscule yet intricate pastoralist subjects showing the relative enormity of the landscape. Zoom into the left to see a group of men engaging in [[seine fishing|seine-haul fishing]].}}

==== Painting ====
[[File:Dong Yuan Mountain Hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Painting by [[Dong Yuan]] ({{circa|934}}{{snd}}962).]]
Beginning in the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907), the primary subject matter of painting was the landscape, known as [[shanshui]] (mountain water) painting. In these landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse, the purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm" of nature.

Painting in the traditional style involved essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and was done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils were not used. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings were made were paper and silk. The finished works were then mounted on scrolls, which could be hung or rolled up. Traditional painting was also done in albums, on walls, lacquer work, and in other media.

Dong Yuan was an active painter in the Southern Tang Kingdom. He was known for both figure and landscape paintings, and exemplified the elegant style which would become the standard for brush painting in China over the next 900 years. As with many artists in China, his profession was as an official where he studied the existing styles of Li Sixun and Wang Wei. However, he added to the number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect.

[[Zhan Ziqian]] was a painter during the Sui dynasty. His only painting in existence is ''Strolling About In Spring'' arranged mountains perspectively. Because pure [[landscape paintings]] are hardly seen in Europe until the 17th century, ''Strolling About In Spring'' may well be the world's first landscape painting.

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=500|caption_align=center
| align    = left
| direction =vertical
| header=
| image2   = Zhou Fang. Court Ladies Tuning the Lute (28x75) Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City.jpg|thumb|left|
| caption2 = 
| image1   = Zhou Fang. Court Ladies Wearing Flowered Headdresses. (46x180) Liaoning Provincial Museum, Shenyang..jpg
| caption1 = 
| footer=[[Zhou Fang (Tang dynasty)|Zhou Fang]] (c.730-800) is renowned for his paintings of contemporary court ladies, whose opulent figures reflected the beauty standards of the day.
}}

[[File:Palefrenier menant deux chevaux par Han Gan.jpg|250px|thumb|''A Man Herding Horses'', by [[Han Gan]] (706–783 AD), Tang dynasty original.]]

{{clear}}

{{Wide image|Gu Hongzhong's Night Revels 1 edit.jpg|2300px|align-cap=center|Full scroll of ''[[The Night Revels of Han Xizai]]'', first painted in the 10th century in [[Southern Tang]], later reproduced in 12th-century|dir=rtl}}

{{clear}}

=== The Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368) ===
{{Main|Culture of the Song dynasty}}
[[File:Wood Bodhisattva.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A wooden [[Bodhisattva]] from the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279 AD)]]
[[File:Zhang Shengwen. L'enseignement de Bouddha Sakyamuni.jpg|thumb|350px|right|''The [[Sakyamuni]] [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'', by Zhang Shengwen, 1173–1176 AD, [[Song dynasty]] period.]]

==== Song painting ====
During the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), landscapes of more subtle expression appeared; immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist, and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony of man and nature, as perceived according to [[Taoist art|Taoist]] and [[Buddhist art|Buddhist]] concepts.

[[Liang Kai]] was a Chinese painter who lived in the 13th century (Song dynasty). He called himself "Madman Liang", and he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a [[Zen]] monk. Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. [[Wen Tong]] was a painter who lived in the 11th century. He was famous for [[ink paintings of bamboo]]. He could hold two brushes in one hand and paint two different distanced bamboos simultaneously. He did not need to see the bamboo while he painted them because he had seen a lot of them.

[[Zhang Zeduan]] was a notable painter for his horizontal ''[[Along the River During Qingming Festival|Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]'' landscape and cityscape painting. It is considered one of China's most renowned paintings and has had many well-known remakes throughout Chinese history.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bradsher |first=Keith |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/03/arts/design/03pain.html?_r=2 |title='China's Mona Lisa' Makes a Rare Appearance in Hong Kong |location=China;Hong Kong;Great Britain |work=The New York Times  |date=July 3, 2007 |access-date=2011-11-13}}</ref> Other famous paintings include ''[[Gu Hongzhong|The Night Revels of Han Xizai]]'', originally painted by the [[Southern Tang]] artist [[Gu Hongzhong]] in the 10th century, while the well-known version of his painting is a 12th-century remake of the Song dynasty. This is a large horizontal handscroll of a domestic scene showing men of the [[Gentry (China)|gentry class]] being entertained by musicians and dancers while enjoying food, beverage, and wash basins provided by maidservants. In 2000, the modern artist [[Wang Qingsong]] created a parody of this painting with a long, horizontal photograph of people in modern clothing making similar facial expressions, poses, and hand gestures as the original painting.

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 650
| align             = left
| image1            = Song Dynasty Hydraulic Mill for Grain.JPG
| image2            = 清明上河图.jpg
| image3            = Bianjing city gate.JPG
| image4            = Leifeng Pagoda in the Southern Song Dynasty by Li Song.jpg
| footer            = Various scenes from ''[[Along the River During the Qingming Festival]]''
}}

[[File:雪景图轴.传宋.马远.画.纸本设色.台北故宫博物院藏.jpg|180px|thumb|[[Ma Yuan (painter)|Ma Yuan]]'s Snowscape]]

{{clear}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="200px">
Image:Chinesischer Maler des 11. Jahrhunderts (I) 001.jpg|''Buddhist Temple in the Mountains'', 11th century, ink on silk, [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]], Kansas City (Missouri).
File:Guanyin 00.jpg|Seated [[Bodhisattva]] Avalokitesvara ([[Guanyin]]), wood and pigment, 11th century, Chinese [[Northern Song dynasty]], [[St. Louis Art Museum]]
File:Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg|''Almanac of birds and beasts'', typical example of the [[Gongbi]] styles popular during the Song
File:Three Friends of Winter by Zhao Mengjian.jpg|[[Three Friends of Winter]] depicting plum, pine and bamboo, still used for decoration during new year's by countries in the [[sinosphere]] 
File:Guo Zhongshu-Traveling on the River in Snow.jpg|''Traveling on the River in Snow''. Extremely intricate details give historians insight into [[Science and technology of the Song dynasty|medieval Chinese shipbuilding]].

File:北宋 徽宗 竹禽圖 卷-Finches and bamboo MET DP151504.jpg|[[Emperor Huizong of Song]] was a prolific painter
File:Li Anzhong's Bird on a Branch.gif|Li Anzhong's ''Bird on a Branch''; it has a circular shape because this was initially painted for a [[Tuanshan|circular fan]].
Image:Loquats and Mountain Bird.jpg|''[[Loquats]] and a Mountain Bird'', [[Southern Song dynasty|Southern Song]] (1127–1279); small album leaf paintings like this were popular amongst [[Gentry (China)|gentry]] and [[Scholar-bureaucrats|scholar-officials]].
File:Song-Palace1.jpg|''Auspicious Cranes'', by Emperor Huizong depicting a scene on top of Kaifeng city gate on 16 January 1112.
File:名绘集珍册 9 宋 李迪 春潮带雨.jpg|''The Spring Tide Brings Rain'' by [[Li Di]]
File:Ma Lin Guests.jpg|[[Tuanshan|Circular-fan]] painting by [[Ma Lin (painter)|Ma Lin]]
File:Li Di-Shrike on a Winter Tree.jpg|''Shrike on a tree in winter''; 1187 AD. 
File:Cui Bai - Wintry Sparrows.jpg|''Wintry Sparrows'' by [[Cui Bai]] 
File:Fan Kuan - Travelers Among Mountains and Streams - Google Art Project.jpg|''Travelers among Mountains and Streams'' (谿山行旅), [[Fan Kuan]] (c. 960 – 1032)
File:One Hundred Children Playing in the Spring.jpg|"One Hundred Children Playing in the Spring" by [[Su Hanchen]]((1094–1172))
File:The Knickknack Peddler.jpg|The Knickknack Peddler by Su Hanchen; depictions of common life became a popular motif during the prosperous years of the Song dynasty

</gallery>

{{Panorama
|image   = File:15 Qian Xuan Eight Flowers National Palace Museum Beijing.JPG
|height  = 160
|alt     = 
|caption = Qian Xuan's ''Eight Flowers'', 13th century.
|dir = ltr
}}

{{Panorama
|image   = File:Chen Rong - Nine Dragons.jpg
|height  = 160
|alt     = 
|caption = [[Nine Dragons (painting)]] by Chen Rong (c.1200-1266)
|dir = rtl
}}

{{Panorama
|image = File:Sung dynasty imperial procession6.jpg
|height = 150
|caption = A [[Northern Song dynasty]] imperial procession giving tribute to the [[Tian|Lord of Heaven]], depicting armed honor guards and officials, dated 1053–1065
|dir = rtl}}

==== Yuan painting ====
[[File:Emperor Taizu play Cuju.jpg|thumb|250px|A painting depicting [[Emperor Taizu of Song]] playing ''[[cuju]]'' (i.e. Chinese football) with his prime minister [[Zhao Pu]] (趙普) and other ministers, by the [[Yuan dynasty]] artist [[Qian Xuan]] (1235–1305)]]

With the fall of the Song dynasty in 1279, and the subsequent dislocation caused by the establishment of the [[Yuan dynasty]] by the [[Mongol]] conquerors, many court and literary artists retreated from social life, and returned to nature, through landscape paintings, and by renewing the "blue and green" style of the Tang era.<ref name="Capon and Pang, pg. 12">Capon and Pang, pg. 12</ref>

[[Wang Meng (painter)|Wang Meng]] was one such painter, and one of his most famous works is the ''Forest Grotto''. [[Zhao Mengfu]] was a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the [[Yuan dynasty]]. His rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. There was also the vivid and detailed works of art by [[Qian Xuan]] (1235–1305), who had served the Song court, and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols, instead turning to painting. He was also famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang dynasty style of painting.

The later Yuan dynasty is characterized by the work of the so-called "Four Great Masters". The most notable of these was [[Huang Gongwang]] (1269–1354) whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries, and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries. Another of great influence was [[Ni Zan]] (1301–1374), who frequently arranged his compositions with a strong and distinct foreground and background, but left the middle-ground as an empty expanse. This scheme was frequently to be adopted by later [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing]] dynasty painters.<ref name="Capon and Pang, pg. 12"/>

====Pottery====
[[Chinese porcelain]] is made from a hard paste made of the clay [[kaolin]] and a [[feldspar]] called [[petuntse]], which cements the vessel and seals any [[wikt:pore|pores]]. ''China'' has become synonymous with high-quality porcelain. Most china pots comes from the city of [[Jingdezhen]] in [[Jiangxi]] province. [[Jingdezhen porcelain]], under a variety of names, has been central to porcelain production in China since at least the Yuan dynasty.

===Late imperial China (1368–1912)===

==== Ming painting ====
{{Main|Ming dynasty painting}}
Under the [[Ming dynasty]], Chinese culture bloomed. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the Song paintings, was immensely popular during the time.

[[Wen Zhengming]] (1470–1559) developed the style of the Wu school in [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]], which dominated Chinese painting during the 16th century.<ref>Capon and Pang, pg. 42</ref>

[[Dong Qichang]] (1555–1636) further influenced [[East Asia]]n art history by absorbing [[Chan Buddhism]] ideas and putting forward the "Southern and Northern Schools" theory.<ref name="fuqiumeng">{{cite web|url = https://fuqiumeng.com/viewing-room/31-transcultural-dialogues-the-journey-of-east-asian-art/|title = Transcultural Dialogues: The Journey of East Asian Art to The West|publisher = Fu Qiumeng|access-date = 2024-11-25}}</ref>

European culture began to make an impact on Chinese art during this period. The Jesuit priest [[Matteo Ricci]] visited Nanjing with many Western artworks, which were influential in showing different techniques of perspective and shading.<ref>Capon and Pang, pg. 120</ref>

<gallery widths="170px" heights="200px">
File:Bian Jingzhao-Birds Flocking at Flowers and Bamboo.jpg|[[Bian Jingzhao]]'s intricate [[Gongbi]] took after the styles of Song, whilst incorporating other artistic styles
File:Bian Wenjin, Three Friends and a Hundred Birds.jpg|''Three Friends and a Hundred Birds'', zoom in to see the details.
File:Empress crown, NMC, 2016-09-09 01.jpg|Ming Empress phoenix crown, decorated with [[Tian-tsui]].
File:T'ang Yin 003.jpg| [[Tang Yin]]'s ''A Fisher in Autumn''
File:Peach Festival of the Queen Mother of the West, Freer Gallery of Art.jpg|Peach Festival of the Queen Mother of the West, early 17th century, Ming dynasty.
File:Bian Jingzhao-Snow Plum and Twin Cranes.jpg|[[Bian Jingzhao]]'s ''Snow Plum and Twin Cranes'' incorporating the [[Gonbi]] style, 15th century.
File:Emperor Shenzong and Empress Xiaoduan.jpg|Emperor Shenzong and Empress Xiaoduan
File:明 佚名 鳥販圖 軸-Bird peddler MET DT271148.jpg|''Bird Peddler'', 16th century. The prosperity of the Ming-era inspired a renaissance in art depicting common life. 
file:Paintings from Baoning Temple, No.R31.jpg|[[Shuilu ritual paintings|Shuilu ritual painting]] of [[Canshen]] and the [[Wen Shen|Five Demons of Pestilence]], Baoning Temple, Ming dynasty
File:Chen Hongshou, leaf album painting.jpg|''Magnolia and Erect Rock'' (玉堂柱石圖) 
File:Portrait assis de l'empereur Ming Xuanzong.jpg|Ming portraiture also took after Song styles, however it shed its adherence to plainness and austerity.
File:Detail of The Emperor's Approach, Xuande period.jpg|Detail of ''The Emperor's Approach'' showing the [[Wanli Emperor]]'s royal carriage being pulled by elephants and escorted by cavalry ([[:File:Departure Herald-Ming Dynasty.jpg|full panoramic painting here]])
</gallery>

==== Early Qing painting ====
The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands: the Orthodox school, and the Individualist painters, both of which followed the theories of Dong Qichang, but emphasizing very different aspects.<ref>Capon and Pang, pg. 90, 91</ref> Court painting of the Qing dynasty was also greatly influenced by Western artists such as [[Jean Denis Attiret]] (1702–1768) and [[Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)|Giuseppe Castiglione]] (1688–1766).<ref name="fuqiumeng" />

The "[[Four Wangs]]", including [[Wang Jian (17th-century painter)|Wang Jian]] (1598–1677) and [[Wang Shimin]] (1592–1680), were particularly renowned in the [[Six Masters of the early Qing period|Orthodox school]], and sought inspiration in recreating the past styles, especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. The younger [[Wang Yuanqi]] (1642–1715) ritualized the approach of engaging with and drawing inspiration from a work of an ancient master. His own works were often annotated with his theories of how his painting relates to the master's model.<ref>Capon and Pang, pg. 90</ref>

The Individualist painters included [[Bada Shanren]] (1626–1705) and [[Shitao]] (1641–1707). They drew more from the revolutionary ideas of transcending the tradition to achieve an original individualistic styles; in this way they were more faithfully following the way of Dong Qichang than the Orthodox school (who were his official direct followers.)<ref>Capon and Pang, pg. 91</ref>

Painters outside of the literati-scholar and aristocratic traditions also gained renown, with some artists creating paintings to sell for money. These included [[Ma Quan]] (late 17th–18th century), who depicted common flowers, birds, and insects that were not typical subject matter among scholars. Such painters were, however, not separated from formal schools of painting, but were usually well-versed in artistic styles and techniques. Ma Quan, for example, modelled her brushwork on Song dynasty examples.<ref name=zhao>{{citation|last=Zhao |first=Yanqing 赵燕青|title=浅议马荃的花鸟画风 |trans-title=Discussion of Ma Quan's bird and flower paintings style|language=zh|journal=Dazhong Wenyi (Lilun)|date=2009 | issue=3|page=44}}</ref> Simultaneously, the boneless technique ({{lang-zh|c=沒骨畫}}), thought to have originated as a preparatory step when painting gold-line images during the Tang, was continued by painters like [[Yun Shouping]] (1633–1690) and his descendant [[Yun Bing]].<ref name=briessen>{{citation |title=The Way of the Brush: Painting Techniques of China and Japan|last=van Briessen|first=Fritz|place=Vermont|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|date=1998|chapter=3}}</ref>

As the techniques of color printing were perfected, illustrated manuals on the art of painting began to be published. ''[[Jieziyuan Huazhuan]]'' (Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden), a five-volume work first published in 1679, has been in use as a technical textbook for artists and students ever since.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Portraits of the Yongzheng Emperor Enjoying Himself during the 8th lunar month.jpg|''The [[Yongzheng Emperor]] Enjoying Himself During the 8th Lunar Month'', by anonymous court artists, 1723–1735 AD, [[Palace Museum]], Beijing, showing the use of [[linear perspective]].
File:MET DP153920.jpg|''Album Leaf'', [[Yun Bing]], 17th century, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York, showing the "boneless" technique.
File:K'un-ts'an 001.jpg|Chinese painting from 1664 by Qing dynasty painter [[Kun Can]]
</gallery>

==== Late Qing art ====
[[Nianhua]] were a form of colored woodblock prints in China, depicting images for decoration during the [[Chinese New Year]]. In the 19th century Nianhua were used as news mediums.

==== Shanghai School ====
The [[Shanghai School]] is a very important Chinese school of traditional arts during the [[Qing dynasty]] and the 20th century. Under efforts of masters from this school, traditional Chinese art reached another climax and continued to the present in forms of Chinese painting (中國畫), or ''guohua'' (國畫) for short. The Shanghai School challenged and broke the literati tradition of Chinese art, while also paying technical homage to the ancient masters and improving on existing traditional techniques. Members of this school were themselves educated literati who had come to question their very status and the purpose of art, and had anticipated the impending modernization of Chinese society. In an era of rapid social change, works from the Shanghai School were widely innovative and diverse, and often contained thoughtful yet subtle social commentary. The best known figures from this school are [[Ren Xiong]], [[Ren Bonian]], [[Zhao Zhiqian]], [[Wu Changshuo]], [[Sha Menghai]], [[Pan Tianshou]], [[Fu Baoshi]], [[He Tianjian]], and [[Xie Zhiliu]]. Other well-known painters include [[Wang Zhen (painter)|Wang Zhen]], [[Xugu]], [[Zhang Xiong (painter)|Zhang Xiong]], [[Hu Yuan]], and [[Yang Borun]].