Editing Chinese grammar (section)

==Word formation==
In Chinese, the difference between [[word]]s and [[Chinese characters]] is often not clear,{{efn|The first Chinese scholar to consider the concept of a ''word'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=词|p=cí|t=詞}}) as opposed to the ''[[Chinese character|character]]'' ({{zhi|c=字|p=zì}}) is claimed to have been Shizhao Zhang in 1907. However, defining the word has proved difficult, and some linguists consider that the concept is not applicable to Chinese at all. See {{cite book |last=San |first=Duanmu |title=The Phonology of Standard Chinese |publisher=Oxford University Press  |year=2000 |isbn=9780198299875}}}} this is one of the reasons the Chinese script does not use spaces to separate words. A string of characters can be translated as a single English word, but these characters have some kind of independence. For example, {{zhp|p=tiàowǔ|c=跳舞|l=jump-dance}}, meaning 'to dance', can be used as a single [[intransitive verb]], or may be regarded as comprising two single lexical words. However, it does in fact function as a compound of the verb {{zhp|p=tiào|c=跳|l=to jump}} and the object {{Zhp|p=wǔ|c=舞|l=a dance}}.<ref>However, like 'dance', {{lang|zh|舞}} can also be used as a verb: for example, {{zhi|c=「項莊舞劍」|tr=[[Xiang Zhuang]] danced with a sword}}</ref> Additionally, the [[present progressive]] aspect marker {{Zhp|p=zhe|c=着}} can be inserted between these two parts to form {{Zhp|p=tiàozhewǔ|c=跳着舞|l=to be dancing}}.

Chinese [[morpheme]]s (the smallest units of meaning) are mostly monosyllabic. In most cases, morphemes are represented by single characters. However, two or more monosyllabic morphemes can be translated as a single English word. These monosyllabic morphemes can be either free or bound – that is, in particular usage, they may or may not be able to stand independently. Most two-syllable compound [[noun]]s often have the [[head (grammar)|head]] on the right (e.g. {{zhi|c=蛋糕|p=dàngāo|l=egg-cake}} means "cake"), while compound verbs often have the head on the left (e.g. {{zhi|c=辩论|p=biànlùn|l=debate-discuss}} means "debate").{{sfnp|Sun|2006|p=50}}

Some Chinese [[morpheme]]s are polysyllabic; for example, the [[loanword]]s {{Zhp|p=shāfā|s=沙发|t=沙發|l=sofa}} is the compound of {{Zhp|p=shā|c=沙|l=sand}} and {{Zhp|p=fā|s=发|t=發|l=to send, to issue}}, but this compound is actually simply a [[transliteration]] of "sofa". Many native disyllabic morphemes, such as {{Zhp|p=zhīzhū|c=蜘蛛|l=spider}}, have consonant [[alliteration]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Many monosyllabic words have alternative disyllabic forms with virtually the same meaning, such as {{Zhp|p=dàsuàn|s=大蒜|l=big-garlic}} for {{Zhp|p=suàn|s=蒜|l=garlic}}. Many disyllabic nouns are produced by adding the suffix {{Zhp|p=zi|s=子|l=child}} to a monosyllabic word or morpheme. There is a strong tendency for monosyllables to be avoided in certain positions; for example, a disyllabic verb will not normally be followed by a monosyllabic object. This may be connected with the preferred [[Standard Chinese phonology#Stress, rhythm and intonation|metrical structure of the language]].

===Reduplication===
[[Reduplication]] (the repetition of a syllable or word) is a common feature in Chinese:
*Family members: {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=māma|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=妈妈|t=媽媽}}, "mother"); ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=dìdi|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=弟弟}}, "younger brother")
*Adjectives or adverb: to emphasize the state described by the adjective/adverb,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Melloni |first1=Chiara |last2=Basciano |first2=Bianca |date=2018 |title=Reduplication across boundaries: The case of Mandarin |url=https://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=1001683#page=343 |journal=The Lexeme in Theoretical and Descriptive Morphology |volume=4 |pages=331 |via=[[OAPEN]]}}</ref> or as a childish expression.
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=hóng-hóng-de|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=红红的|t=紅紅的|c=}} "red"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=hóng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=红|t=紅}}, "red");
::ex. {{zh|labels=no|s=手心看起来'''红红的'''|t=手心看起來'''紅紅的'''|c=}}(''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Shǒuxīn kàn qǐlái '''hóng-hóng-de'''|labels=no}}'', "palm looks '''red'''")
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gāo-gāo-xìng-xìng-de|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=高高兴兴地|t=高高興興地}} "very happily"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gāo-xìng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=高兴|t=高興}}, "happy, happiness");
::ex. {{zh|labels=no|s='''高高兴兴地'''吃|t='''高高興興地'''吃}} (''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''Gāo-gāo-xìng-xìng-de''' chī|labels=no}}'', "eat '''happily'''")
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=bīng-bīng-liáng-liáng-de|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=|t=|c=冰冰凉凉的}}, "ice-cool" ), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=bīng-liáng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=|c={{linktext|冰凉}}|t=|p=}}, "ice-cool");
::ex. {{zh|labels=no|s='''冰冰凉凉的'''饮料|t='''冰冰涼涼的'''飲料}} (''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''Bīng-bīng-liáng-liáng de''' yǐnliào|labels=no}}'', "'''ice-cold''' drink")
*Other adjectives have ABB reduplication structure:
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiāng-pēn-pēn|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=香喷喷|t=香噴噴}}, literally" good smell spray out", means "smell very good"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiāng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=香}}, "to smell good, smell") and ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=pēn|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=喷|t=噴}}, "spray");
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=liàng-jīng-jīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=亮晶晶}}, "shining, bright and clear"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=liàng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=亮}}, "bright") and ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=jīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=晶}}, "shiny like a star");
*Verbs: to mark the [[delimitative aspect]] ("to do something for a little bit") or for general emphasis – see the {{Section link||Aspects}} section:
:{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiě-xiě-zuòyè|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=写写作业|t=寫寫作業|c=}} "write homework / write homework for a while"), from the verb {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xiě|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=写|t=寫|c=}} "write") and the noun {{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=zuò-yè|labels=no}} ({{zh|labels=no|s=作业|t=作業|c=}} "homework")
*Single morphemes:
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xīngxīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|星星}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "star"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=xīng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|星}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "star");
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=chángcháng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=常常}}, "often"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=cháng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=常}}, "constant");
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gǒugǒu|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=狗狗|s=|t=|p=}}, "puppy/doggy"), from ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=gǒu|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c={{linktext|狗}}|s=|t=|p=}}, "dog")
*[[Chinese classifier]]s, to produce a phrase meaning "every" or "many":
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Nǐmen '''yī gè gè dōu''' zhǎng dé yī fù cōng-míng xiāng|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=你們'''一個個都'''長得一副聰明相}}, "You '''all''' look smart", from [[Crystal Boys]]), where ordinarily ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''gè'''|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=|s=个|t=個}}) is the general classifier. Literally, the phrase ''{{Zh|c=一個個|s=|t=|p=yī gè gè|labels=no}}'' means "every", and the character ''{{Zh|c=都|s=|t=|p=dōu|labels=no}}'' means "all".
:''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=Yī-'''zuò-zuò''' qīng-shān|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=一'''座座'''青山}}, "many green hills"), where ordinarily ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p='''zuò'''|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=座}}) is a proper classifier for ''{{Zh|c=|s=|t=|p=shān|labels=no}}'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=山}}, "hill").

=== Prefixes ===

*{{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|可}}|kě}} — "-able" 
**{{ruby-zh-p|可|kě}} {{ruby-zh-p|靠|kào}} — "reliable"
** {{ruby-zh-p|可|kě}} {{ruby-zh-p|敬|jìng}} — "respectable"
* {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} — "anti-"
** {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} {{ruby-zh-p|恐|kǒng}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=反恐}}&#93; — "anti-terror"
** {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} {{ruby-zh-p|教权的|jiàoquánde}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=反教權的}}&#93; — "anti-clerical"
** {{ruby-zh-p|反|fǎn}} {{ruby-zh-p|法西斯|fàxīsī}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=反法西斯}}&#93; — "anti-fascist"

=== Suffixes ===

*{{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|化}}|huà}} — used to form verbs from nouns or adjectives
**{{ruby-zh-p|国际|guójì}} {{ruby-zh-p|化|huà}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=國際化}}&#93; — "internationalize", from {{ruby-zh-p|国际|guójì}} ("internationality")
** {{ruby-zh-p|恶|è}} {{ruby-zh-p|化|huà}} &#91;{{zh|labels=no|t=惡化}}&#93; — "worsen", from {{ruby-zh-p|恶|è}} ("bad")
* {{ruby-zh-p|性|xìng}} — "attribute"
** {{ruby-zh-p|安全|ānquán}} {{ruby-zh-p|性|xìng}} — "safety"
** {{ruby-zh-p|有效|yǒuxiào}} {{ruby-zh-p|性|xìng}} — "effectiveness"

=== Intrafixes ===
*{{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|得}}|de}} — "can" and {{ruby-zh-p|{{linktext|不}}|bu}} — "cannot"
** {{ruby-zh-p|听得懂|tīngdedǒng }} — "can understand"
** {{ruby-zh-p|听不懂|tīngbudǒng }} — "cannot understand"