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Clostridium perfringens
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== Genome == ''Clostridium perfringens'' has a stable [[GC-content|G+C content]] around 27 to 28 percent and average [[genome]] size of 3.5 Mb.<ref name="Kiu-2017" /> Genomes of 56 ''C. perfringens'' strains have since been made available on the [[NCBI]] genomes database for the scientific research community. [[Genomics|Genomic]] research has revealed surprisingly high diversity in ''C. perfringens'' [[Pan-genome|pangenome]], with only 12.6 percent core genes, identified as the most divergent Gram-positive [[bacteria]] reported.<ref name="Kiu-2017" /> Nevertheless, [[16S rRNA]] regions in between ''C. perfringens'' strains are found to be highly conserved ([[sequence identity]] >99.1%).<ref name="Kiu-2017">{{Cite journal|last1=Kiu|first1=Raymond|last2=Caim|first2=Shabhonam|last3=Alexander|first3=Sarah|last4=Pachori|first4=Purnima|last5=Hall|first5=Lindsay J.|date=2017|title=Probing Genomic Aspects of the Multi-Host Pathogen Clostridium perfringens Reveals Significant Pangenome Diversity, and a Diverse Array of Virulence Factors|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|language=en|volume=8|pages=2485|pmc=5733095|pmid=29312194|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2017.02485|doi-access=free}}</ref> The ''Clostridium perfringens'' enterotoxin (CPE)–producing strain has been identified to be a small portion of the overall ''C. perfringens'' population (~1-5%) through genomic testing.<ref name="Miyamoto-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Miyamoto |first1=Kazuaki |last2=Li |first2=Jihong |last3=McClane |first3=Bruce A. |date=2012 |title=Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens: Detection and Identification |journal=Microbes and Environments |language=en |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=343–349 |doi=10.1264/jsme2.ME12002 |pmid=22504431 |pmc=4103540 |s2cid=7743606 |issn=1342-6311|doi-access=free }}</ref> Advances in genetic information surrounding strain A CPE ''C. perfringens'' has allowed techniques such as microbial source tracking (MST) to identify food contamination sources.<ref name="Miyamoto-2012" /> The CPE gene has been found within chromosomal DNA as well as plasmid DNA. Plasmid DNA has been shown to play and integral role in cell pathogenesis and encodes for major toxins, including CPE.<ref name="Gulliver-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Gulliver |first1=Emily L. |last2=Adams |first2=Vicki |last3=Marcelino |first3=Vanessa Rossetto |last4=Gould |first4=Jodee |last5=Rutten |first5=Emily L. |last6=Powell |first6=David R. |last7=Young |first7=Remy B. |last8=D’Adamo |first8=Gemma L. |last9=Hemphill |first9=Jamia |last10=Solari |first10=Sean M. |last11=Revitt-Mills |first11=Sarah A. |last12=Munn |first12=Samantha |last13=Jirapanjawat |first13=Thanavit |last14=Greening |first14=Chris |last15=Boer |first15=Jennifer C. |date=2023-04-20 |title=Extensive genome analysis identifies novel plasmid families in Clostridium perfringens |journal=Microbial Genomics |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |doi=10.1099/mgen.0.000995 |pmid=37079454 |pmc=10210947 |s2cid=258238878 |issn=2057-5858|doi-access=free }}</ref> ''C. perfringens'' has been shown to carry plasmid-containing genes for [[antibiotic resistance]]. The pCW3 plasmid is the primary conjugation plasmid responsible for creating antibiotic resistance in ''C. perfringens''. Furthermore, the pCW3 plasmid also encodes for multiple toxins found in pathogenic strains of ''C. perfringens''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Vicki |last2=Han |first2=Xiaoyan |last3=Lyras |first3=Dena |last4=Rood |first4=Julian I. |date=September 2018 |title=Antibiotic resistance plasmids and mobile genetic elements of Clostridium perfringens |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0147619X18300726 |journal=Plasmid |language=en |volume=99 |pages=32–39 |doi=10.1016/j.plasmid.2018.07.002|pmid=30055188 |s2cid=51866356 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Antibiotic resistance genes observed thus far include [[tetracycline]] resistance, efflux protein, and [[aminoglycoside]] resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kiu |first1=Raymond |last2=Caim |first2=Shabhonam |last3=Alexander |first3=Sarah |last4=Pachori |first4=Purnima |last5=Hall |first5=Lindsay J. |date=2017-12-12 |title=Probing Genomic Aspects of the Multi-Host Pathogen Clostridium perfringens Reveals Significant Pangenome Diversity, and a Diverse Array of Virulence Factors |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=8 |page=2485 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2017.02485 |issn=1664-302X|doi-access=free |pmid=29312194 |pmc=5733095 }}</ref> Within industrial contexts, such as [[food production]], sequencing genomes for pathogenic strains of ''C. perfringens'' has become an expanding field of research. Poultry production is impacted directly from this trend as antibiotic-resistant strains of ''C. perfringens'' are becoming more common.<ref name="Elnar-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Elnar |first1=Arxel G. |last2=Kim |first2=Geun-Bae |date=2021-11-30 |title=Complete genome sequence of Clostridium perfringens B20, a bacteriocin-producing pathogen |journal=Journal of Animal Science and Technology |language=en |volume=63 |issue=6 |pages=1468–1472 |doi=10.5187/jast.2021.e113 |issn=2672-0191|doi-access=free |pmid=34957460 |pmc=8672250 }}</ref> By performing a meta-genome analysis, researches are capable to identify novel strains of pathogenic bacterium, such as ''C. perfringens'' B20.<ref name="Elnar-2021" />
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