Editing Combustor (section)

==Fundamentals==
[[File:Combustor on Rolls-Royce Nene turbojet (1).jpg|thumb|Combustor on a [[Rolls-Royce Nene]] [[turbojet]]]]
The objective of the combustor in a gas turbine is to add energy to the system to power the [[turbine]]s, and produce a high-velocity gas to exhaust through the nozzle in aircraft applications. As with any engineering challenge, accomplishing this requires balancing many design considerations, such as the following:
*Completely combust the fuel. Otherwise, the engine wastes the unburned fuel and creates unwanted emissions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO), and soot.
*Low pressure loss across the combustor. The turbine which the combustor feeds needs high-pressure flow to operate efficiently.
*The flame (combustion) must be held (contained) inside of the combustor. If combustion happens further back in the engine, the turbine stages can easily be overheated and damaged. Additionally, as [[turbine blade]]s continue to grow more advanced and are able to withstand higher temperatures, the combustors are being designed to burn at higher temperatures and the parts of the combustor need to be designed to withstand those higher temperatures.
*It should be capable of relighting at high altitude in an event of engine flame-out.
*Uniform exit temperature profile. If there are hot spots in the exit flow, the turbine may be subjected to [[thermal stress]] or other types of damage. Similarly, the temperature profile within the combustor should avoid hot spots, as those can damage or destroy a combustor from the inside.
*Small physical size and weight. Space and weight are at a premium in aircraft applications, so a well designed combustor strives to be compact. Non-aircraft applications, like power-generating gas turbines, are not as constrained by this factor.
*Wide range of operation. Most combustors must be able to operate with a variety of inlet pressures, temperatures, and mass flows. These factors change with both engine settings and environmental conditions (i.e., full throttle at low altitude can be very different from idle throttle at high altitude).
*Environmental emissions. There are strict regulations on aircraft emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides, so combustors need to be designed to minimize those emissions. (See ''Emissions'' section below)

Sources:<ref>Flack, p. 440.</ref><ref>Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 325.</ref>

===History===
Advancements in combustor technology focused on several distinct areas; emissions, operating range, and durability. Early jet engines produced large amounts of smoke, so early combustor advances, in the 1950s, were aimed at reducing the smoke produced by the engine. Once smoke was essentially eliminated, efforts turned in the 1970s to reducing other emissions, like [[unburned hydrocarbon]]s and [[carbon monoxide]] (for more details, see the ''Emissions'' section below). The 1970s also saw improvement in combustor durability, as new manufacturing methods improved liner (see ''Components'' below) lifetime by nearly 100 times that of early liners. In the 1980s combustors began to improve their efficiency across the whole operating range; combustors tended to be highly efficient (99%+) at full power, but that efficiency dropped off at lower settings. Development over that decade improved efficiencies at lower levels. The 1990s and 2000s saw a renewed focus on reducing emissions, particularly [[nitrogen oxides]]. Combustor technology is still being actively researched and advanced, and much modern research focuses on improving the same aspects.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Koff, Bernard L. |title=Gas Turbine Technology Evolution: A Designer's Perspective. |journal=[[Journal of Propulsion and Power]] |volume=20 |number=4 |date=July–August 2004 |pages=577–595 |doi=10.2514/1.4361 |url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/1.4361|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Components===
[[File:Combustor diagram componentsPNG.png|frameless|border|upright=2|right]]
;{{vanchor |Case}}
The case is the outer shell of the combustor, and is a fairly simple structure. The casing generally requires little maintenance.<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 119–20.</ref> The case is protected from thermal loads by the air flowing in it, so thermal performance is of limited concern. However, the casing serves as a pressure vessel that must withstand the difference between the high pressures inside the combustor and the lower pressure outside. That mechanical (rather than thermal) load is a driving design factor in the case.<ref>Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 378.</ref>
;{{vanchor |Diffuser}}
The purpose of the diffuser is to slow the high-speed, highly compressed, air from the [[gas compressor|compressor]] to a velocity optimal for the combustor. Reducing the velocity results in an unavoidable loss in total pressure, so one of the design challenges is to limit the loss of pressure as much as possible.<ref>Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 375.</ref> Furthermore, the diffuser must be designed to limit the flow distortion as much as possible by avoiding flow effects like [[boundary layer separation]]. Like most other gas turbine engine components, the diffuser is designed to be as short and light as possible.<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 121.</ref> <!--possible add text about curved wall vs. dump diffusers?-->
;{{vanchor |Liner}}
The liner contains the combustion process and introduces the various airflows (intermediate, dilution, and cooling, see ''Air flow paths'' below) into the combustion zone. The liner must be designed and built to withstand extended high-temperature cycles. For that reason liners tend to be made from [[superalloy]]s like [[Hastelloy|Hastelloy X]]. Furthermore, even though high-performance alloys are used, the liners must be cooled with air flow.<ref name=Mattingly760>Mattingly, p. 760.</ref> Some combustors also make use of [[thermal barrier coating]]s. However, air cooling is still required. In general, there are two main types of liner cooling; film cooling and transpiration cooling. Film cooling works by injecting (by one of several methods) cool air from outside of the liner to just inside of the liner. This creates a thin film of cool air that protects the liner, reducing the temperature at the liner from around 1800 [[Kelvin]](K) to around 830 K, for example. The other type of liner cooling, transpiration cooling, is a more modern approach that uses a [[porous medium|porous]] material for the liner. The porous liner allows a small amount of cooling air to pass through it, providing cooling benefits similar to film cooling. The two primary differences are in the resulting temperature profile of the liner and the amount of cooling air required. Transpiration cooling results in a much more even temperature profile, as the cooling air is uniformly introduced through pores. Film cooling air is generally introduced through slats or louvers, resulting in an uneven profile where it is cooler at the slat and warmer between the slats. More importantly, transpiration cooling uses much less cooling air (on the order of 10% of total airflow, rather than 20-50% for film cooling). Using less air for cooling allows more to be used for combustion, which is more and more important for high-performance, high-thrust engines.<ref>Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, pp. 372–4.</ref><ref>Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 124–7.</ref>
;{{vanchor |Snout}}
The snout is an extension of the dome (see below) that acts as an air splitter, separating the primary air from the secondary air flows (intermediate, dilution, and cooling air; see ''Air flow paths'' section below).<ref name=HandB124>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 124.</ref>
;{{vanchor |Dome}} / {{vanchor |swirler}}
The dome and swirler are the part of the combustor that the primary air (see ''Air flow paths'' below) flows through as it enters the combustion zone. Their role is to generate [[turbulence]] in the flow to rapidly mix the air with fuel.<ref name=Mattingly760/> Early combustors tended to use ''bluff body domes'' (rather than swirlers), which used a simple plate to create [[wake turbulence]] to mix the fuel and air. Most modern designs, however, are ''swirl stabilized'' (use swirlers). The swirler establishes a local low pressure zone that forces some of the combustion products to recirculate, creating the high turbulence.<ref name=HandB124/> However, the higher the turbulence, the higher the pressure loss will be for the combustor, so the dome and swirler must be carefully designed so as not to generate more turbulence than is needed to sufficiently mix the fuel and air.<ref>Flack, p. 441.</ref>
;{{vanchor |Fuel injector}}
[[File:Cannular combustor on a Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan.jpg|thumb|Fuel injectors of a swirl-can combustor on a [[Pratt & Whitney JT9D]] turbofan]]
The fuel injector is responsible for introducing fuel to the combustion zone and, along with the swirler (above), is responsible for mixing the fuel and air. There are four primary types of fuel injectors; pressure-atomizing, air blast, vaporizing, and premix/prevaporizing injectors.<ref name=Mattingly760/> Pressure atomizing fuel injectors rely on high fuel pressures (as much as {{convert|500|psi|order=flip}}) to atomize<ref group="nb" name="note1">While '''atomize''' has several definitions, in this context it means to form a fine spray. It is not meant to imply that the fuel is being broken down to its atomic components.</ref> the fuel. This type of fuel injector has the advantage of being very simple, but it has several disadvantages. The fuel system must be robust enough to withstand such high pressures, and the fuel tends to be [[heterogeneous]]ly atomized, resulting in incomplete or uneven combustion which has more pollutants and smoke.<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 127.</ref><ref name=MHB379>Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 379.</ref>

The second type of fuel injector is the air blast injector. This injector "blasts" a sheet of fuel with a stream of air, atomizing the fuel into homogeneous droplets. This type of fuel injector led to the first smokeless combustors. The air used is just some of the primary air (see ''Air flow paths'' below) that is diverted through the injector, rather than the swirler. This type of injector also requires lower fuel pressures than the pressure atomizing type.<ref  name=MHB379/>

The vaporizing fuel injector, the third type, is similar to the air blast injector in that primary air is mixed with the fuel as it is injected into the combustion zone. However, the fuel-air mixture travels through a tube within the combustion zone. Heat from the combustion zone is transferred to the fuel-air mixture, vaporizing some of the fuel (mixing it better) before it is combusted. This method allows the fuel to be combusted with less [[thermal radiation]], which helps protect the liner. However, the vaporizer tube may have serious durability problems with low fuel flow within it (the fuel inside of the tube protects the tube from the combustion heat).<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 128.</ref>

The premixing/prevaporizing injectors work by mixing or vaporizing the fuel before it reaches the combustion zone. This method allows the fuel to be very uniformly mixed with the air, reducing emissions from the engine. One disadvantage of this method is that fuel may auto-ignite or otherwise combust before the fuel-air mixture reaches the combustion zone. If this happens the combustor can be seriously damaged.<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 129.</ref>

;{{vanchor |Igniter}}
Most igniters in gas turbine applications are electrical spark igniters, similar to [[spark plug|automotive spark plugs]]. The igniter needs to be in the combustion zone where the fuel and air are already mixed, but it needs to be far enough upstream so that it is not damaged by the combustion itself. Once the combustion is initially started by the igniter, it is self-sustaining, and the igniter is no longer used.<ref>Mattingly, Heiser, and Pratt, p. 368.</ref> In can-annular and annular combustors (see ''Types of combustors'' below), the flame can propagate from one combustion zone to another, so igniters are not needed at each one. In some systems ignition-assist techniques are used. One such method is oxygen injection, where oxygen is fed to the ignition area, helping the fuel easily combust. This is particularly useful in some aircraft applications where the engine may have to restart at high altitude.<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 129–30.</ref>

===Air flow paths===
[[File:Combustor diagram airflow.png|frameless|border|upright=2|right]]
;Primary air
This is the main combustion air. It is highly compressed air from the high-pressure compressor (often decelerated via the diffuser) that is fed through the main channels in the dome of the combustor and the first set of liner holes. This air is mixed with fuel, and then combusted.<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 110.</ref>
;Intermediate air
Intermediate air is the air injected into the combustion zone through the second set of liner holes (primary air goes through the first set). This air completes the reaction processes, diluting the high concentrations of [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) and [[hydrogen]] (H<sub>2</sub>),<ref name=HandB111>Henderson and Blazowski, p. 111.</ref> and also helps cooling down the gases from combustion.
;Dilution air
Dilution air is air injected through holes in the liner at the end of the combustion chamber to cool the flue gas before it reaches the turbines. The air is carefully used to produce the uniform temperature profile desired in the combustor. However, as turbine blade technology improves, allowing them to withstand higher temperatures, dilution air is used less, allowing the use of more combustion air.<ref name=HandB111/>
;Cooling air
Cooling air is air that is injected through small holes in the liner to generate a layer (film) of cool air to protect the liner from the combustion temperatures. The implementation of cooling air has to be carefully designed so it does not directly interact with the combustion air and process. In some cases, as much as 50% of the inlet air is used as cooling air. There are several different methods of injecting this cooling air, and the method can influence the temperature profile that the liner is exposed to (see ''Liner'', above).<ref>Henderson and Blazowski, pp. 111, 125–7.</ref>