Editing Communication in small groups (section)

== Group communication ==
The first important research study of small group communication was performed in front of a live studio audience in Hollywood California by social psychologist Robert Bales and published in a series of books and articles in the early and mid 1950s .<ref name="Bales">Bales, R. F. (1950). ''Interaction process analysis''. Page 33. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.</ref><ref name ="Balesss">Bales, R. F. (1950). ''Interaction process analysis''. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.</ref><ref>Bales, R. F., and Strodtbeck, F. L. (1951). Phases in group problem-solving. ''Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46,'' 485-495.</ref> This research entailed the [[content analysis]] of discussions within groups making decisions about "human relations" problems (i.e., vignettes about relationship difficulties within families or organizations). Bales made a series of important discoveries. First, group discussion tends to shift back and forth relatively quickly between the discussion of the group task and discussion relevant to the relationship among the members. He believed that this shifting was the product of an implicit attempt to balance the demands of task completion and group cohesion, under the presumption that conflict generated during task discussion causes stress among members, which must be released through positive relational talk. Second, task group discussion shifts from an emphasis on opinion exchange, through an attentiveness to values underlying the decision, to making the decision. This implication that group discussion goes through the same series of stages in the same order for any [[group decision-making|decision-making group]] is known as the ''linear phase model''. Third, the most talkative member of a group tends to make between 40 and 50 percent of the comments and the second most talkative member between 25 and 30, no matter the size of the group.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} As a consequence, large groups tend to be dominated by one or two members to the detriment of the others.

===Linear phase model===
The most influential of these discoveries has been the latter; the linear phase model. The idea that all groups performing a given type of task go through the same series of stages in the same order was replicated through the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s; with most finding four phases of discussion. For example, communication researcher B. Aubrey Fisher showed groups going sequentially through an orientation stage, a conflict stage, a stage in which a decision emerges and a stage in which that decision is reinforced.<ref>Fisher, B. A.  (1970). Decision emergence: Phases in group decision making. ''Speech Monographs, 37,'' 53-66.</ref> Much of this research (although not necessarily Fisher's) had two fundamental flaws. First, all group data was combined before analysis, making it impossible to determine whether there were differences among groups in their sequence of discussion. Second, group discussion content was compared across the same number of stages as the researcher hypothesized, such that if the researcher believed there were four stages to discussion, there was no way to find out if there actually were five or more. In the 1980s, communication researcher [[Marshall Scott Poole]] examined a sample of groups without making these errors and noted substantial differences among them in the number and order of stages.<ref>[[Marshall Scott Poole|Poole, M. S.]], & Roth, J. (1989). Decision development in small groups IV: A typology of group decision paths. ''Human Communication Research, 15,'' 323-356.</ref> He hypothesized that groups finding themselves in some difficulty due to task complexity, an unclear leadership structure or poor cohesion act as if they feel the need to conduct a "complete" discussion and thus are more likely to pass through all stages as the linear phase model implies, whereas groups feeling confident due to task simplicity, a clear leadership structure and cohesion are more likely to skip stages apparently deemed unnecessary.

===Idea development===
Another milestone in the study of group discussion content was early 1960s work by communication researchers Thomas Scheidel and Laura Crowell regarding the process by which groups examine individual proposed solutions to their problem.<ref>Scheidel, T. M., & Crowell, L. (1964). Idea development in small discussion groups. ''Quarterly Journal of Speech, 50,'' 140-145.</ref> They concluded that after a proposal is made, groups discuss it in an implied attempt to determine their "comfort level" with it and then drop it in lieu of a different proposal. In a procedure akin to the survival of the fittest, proposals viewed favorably would emerge later in discussion, whereas those viewed unfavorably would not; the authors referred to this process as "spiraling."  Although there are serious methodological problems with this work, other studies have led to similar conclusions. For example, in the 1970s, social psychologist L. Richard Hoffman noted that odds of a proposal's acceptance is strongly associated with the arithmetical difference between the number of utterances supporting versus rejecting that proposal. More recent work has shown that groups differ substantially in the extent to which they spiral.<ref>Hoffman, L. R. (1979). ''The group problem-solving process''. New York: Praeger.</ref> Additional developments have taken place within group communication theory as researchers move away from conducting research on zero-history groups, and toward a "bona fide" groups perspective. The bona fide group, as described by Linda L. Putnam and Cynthia Stohl in 1990, fosters a sense of interdependence among the members of the group, along with specific boundaries that have been agreed upon by members over time.<ref>Putnam, L. L., & Stohl, C. (1990). Bona fide groups: A reconceptualization of groups in context. ''Communication Studies, 41, 3,'' 248-265.</ref> This provides researchers with model of group behavior that stays true to the characteristics displayed by most naturally occurring groups, (s).