Editing Computer music (section)

==History==
[[File:CSIRAC-Pano,-Melb.-Museum,-12.8.2008.jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[CSIRAC]], Australia's first digital computer, as displayed at the [[Melbourne Museum]]]]
Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between [[music and mathematics]], a relationship that has been noted since the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] described the "[[harmony of the spheres]]".

Musical melodies were first generated by the computer originally named the CSIR Mark 1 (later renamed [[CSIRAC]]) in Australia in 1950. There were newspaper reports from America and England (early and recently) that computers may have played music earlier, but thorough research has debunked these stories as there is no evidence to support the newspaper reports (some of which were speculative). Research has shown that people ''speculated'' about computers playing music, possibly because computers would make noises,<ref>{{cite web |title=Algorhythmic Listening 1949–1962 Auditory Practices of Early Mainframe Computing |url=http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |work=AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012 |access-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107072033/http://www.computing-conference.ugent.be/file/12 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> but there is no evidence that they did it.<ref name="Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA">{{cite journal|title=MuSA 2017 – Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia, England and the USA |url=https://www.academia.edu/34234640 |journal=MuSA Conference|access-date=18 October 2017 |date=9 July 2017|last1=Doornbusch |first1=Paul }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Doornbusch|first=Paul|title= Early Computer Music Experiments in Australia and England |journal=[[Organised Sound]]|year=2017|volume=22|issue=2|pages=297–307 [11]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/S1355771817000206|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The world's first computer to play music was the CSIR Mark 1 (later named CSIRAC), which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and Maston Beard in the late 1940s. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIR Mark 1 to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1950 the CSIR Mark 1 was used to play music, the first known use of a digital computer for that purpose. The music was never recorded, but it has been accurately reconstructed.<ref name=Fildes>{{cite news|title=Oldest computer music unveiled |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7458479.stm| date=2008-06-17|access-date=2008-06-18|work=[[BBC News Online]]|last=Fildes|first=Jonathan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Doornbusch|first=Paul|date=March 2004|title=Computer Sound Synthesis in 1951: The Music of CSIRAC|journal=[[Computer Music Journal]]|volume=28|issue=1|pages=11–12|doi=10.1162/014892604322970616|s2cid=10593824|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1951 it publicly played the "[[Colonel Bogey March]]"<ref>{{cite web| last = Doornbusch | first = Paul| title = The Music of CSIRAC | publisher = Melbourne School of Engineering, Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering| url = http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118000725/http://www.csse.unimelb.edu.au/dept/about/csirac/music/introduction.html |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> of which only the reconstruction exists. However, the CSIR Mark 1 played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice, as [[Max Mathews]] did, which is current computer-music practice.

The first music to be performed in England was a performance of the [[God Save the King|British National Anthem]] that was programmed by [[Christopher Strachey]] on the [[Ferranti Mark 1]], late in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces were recorded there by a [[BBC]] outside broadcasting unit: the National Anthem, "[[Baa, Baa, Black Sheep]]", and "[[In the Mood]]"; this is recognized as the earliest recording of a computer to play music as the CSIRAC music was never recorded. This recording can be heard at the Manchester University site.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Media (Digital 60) |url=http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/digital60/www.digital60.org/media/index.html |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk}}</ref> Researchers at the [[University of Canterbury]], Christchurch declicked and restored this recording in 2016 and the results may be heard on [[SoundCloud]].<ref>{{cite web|title=First recording of computer-generated music – created by Alan Turing – restored |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/26/first-recording-computer-generated-music-created-alan-turing-restored-enigma-code |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=28 August 2017 |date=26 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Restoring the first recording of computer music – Sound and vision blog|url=http://blogs.bl.uk/sound-and-vision/2016/09/restoring-the-first-recording-of-computer-music.html|publisher=[[British Library]]|access-date=28 August 2017|date=13 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=Fildes />

Two further major 1950s developments were the origins of digital sound synthesis by computer, and of [[algorithmic composition]] programs beyond rote playback. Amongst other pioneers, the musical chemists [[Lejaren Hiller]] and Leonard Isaacson worked on a series of algorithmic composition experiments from 1956 to 1959, manifested in the 1957 premiere of the ''Illiac Suite'' for string quartet.<ref>[[Lejaren Hiller]] and [[Leonard Isaacson]], ''Experimental Music: Composition with an Electronic Computer'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959; reprinted Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1979). {{ISBN|0-313-22158-8}}. {{Page needed|date=November 2010}}</ref> Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program and its descendants, further popularising computer music through a 1963 article in ''Science''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bogdanov|first=Vladimir|author-link=Vladimir Bogdanov (editor)|date=2001|title=All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music | publisher=Backbeat Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad/page/320 320] |url=https://archive.org/details/allmusicguidetoe00vlad |url-access=registration|access-date=4 December 2013|isbn=978-0-87930-628-1 }}</ref> The first professional composer to work with digital synthesis was [[James Tenney]], who created a series of digitally synthesized and/or algorithmically composed pieces at Bell Labs using Mathews' MUSIC III system, beginning with ''Analog #1 (Noise Study)'' (1961).<ref>Tenney, James. (1964) 2015. “Computer Music Experiences, 1961–1964.” In [https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p084379 ''From Scratch: Writings in Music Theory'']. Edited by Larry Polansky, Lauren Pratt, Robert Wannamaker, and Michael Winter. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 97–127.</ref><ref>Wannamaker, Robert, ''[https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=c043673 The Music of James Tenney, Volume 1: Contexts and Paradigms]'' (University of Illinois Press, 2021), 48–82.</ref> After Tenney left Bell Labs in 1964, he was replaced by composer [[Jean-Claude Risset]], who conducted research on the synthesis of instrumental timbres and composed ''Computer Suite from Little Boy'' (1968).

Early computer-music programs typically did not run in [[Real-time computing|real time]], although the first experiments on CSIRAC and the [[Ferranti Mark 1]] did operate in [[Real-time computing|real time]]. From the late 1950s, with increasingly sophisticated programming, programs would run for hours or days, on multi million-dollar computers, to generate a few minutes of music.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cattermole|first=Tannith|title=Farseeing inventor pioneered computer music|url=http://www.gizmag.com/computer-music-pioneer-max-mathews/18530/|publisher=Gizmag |access-date=28 October 2011|date=9 May 2011|quote=In 1957 the MUSIC program allowed an IBM 704 mainframe computer to play a 17-second composition by Mathews. Back then computers were ponderous, so synthesis would take an hour.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mathews|first=Max|author-link=Max Mathews|title=The Digital Computer as a Musical Instrument|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=1 November 1963|volume=142|issue=3592|pages=553–557|doi=10.1126/science.142.3592.553|pmid=17738556|bibcode=1963Sci...142..553M|quote=The generation of sound signals requires very high sampling rates.... A high speed machine such as the I.B.M. 7090 ... can compute only about 5000 numbers per second ... when generating a reasonably complex sound.}}</ref> One way around this was to use a 'hybrid system' of digital control of an [[analog synthesiser]] and early examples of this were Max Mathews' GROOVE system (1969) and also MUSYS by [[Peter Zinovieff]] (1969).

Until now partial use has been exploited for musical research into the substance and form of sound (convincing examples are those of Hiller and Isaacson in Urbana, Illinois, US; [[Iannis Xenakis]] in Paris and [[Pietro Grossi]] in Florence, Italy).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonomini |first1=Mario |last2=Zammit |first2=Victor |last3=Pusey |first3=Charles D. |last4=De Vecchi |first4=Amedeo |last5=Arduini |first5=Arduino |date=March 2011 |title=Pharmacological use of l-carnitine in uremic anemia: Has its full potential been exploited?☆ |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2010.11.006 |journal=Pharmacological Research |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=157–164 |doi=10.1016/j.phrs.2010.11.006 |pmid=21138768 |issn=1043-6618|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In May 1967 the first experiments in computer music in Italy were carried out by the ''S 2F M studio'' in Florence<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Parolini |first1=Giuditta |year=2016 |title=Pietro Grossi's Experience in Electronic and Computer Music by Giuditta Parolini |publisher=University of Leeds |url=http://archive.researchdata.leeds.ac.uk/209/ |doi=10.5518/160/27 |access-date=21 March 2021 |archive-date=18 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618123201/https://archive.researchdata.leeds.ac.uk/209/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in collaboration with ''General Electric Information Systems'' Italy.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gaburo|first=Kenneth|author-link=Kenneth Gaburo|jstor=4617921|title=The Deterioration of an Ideal, Ideally Deteriorized: Reflections on Pietro Grossi's 'Paganini AI Computer'|journal=[[Computer Music Journal]]|volume=9|number=1|date=Spring 1985|pages=39–44}}</ref> ''Olivetti-General Electric GE 115'' ([[Olivetti S.p.A.]]) is used by Grossi as a ''performer'': three programmes were prepared for these experiments. The programmes were written by Ferruccio Zulian <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/bitstream/11303/7174//music_without_musicians_but_with_scientists_technicians_and_computer_companies.pdf.txt|title=Music without Musicians but with Scientists Technicians and Computer Companies|year=2019}}</ref> and used by [[Pietro Grossi]] for playing Bach, Paganini, and Webern works and for studying new sound structures.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giomi|first=Francesco|title=The Work of Italian Artist Pietro Grossi: From Early Electronic Music to Computer Art|journal=[[Leonardo (journal)|Leonardo]]|volume=28|number=1|year=1995|pages=35–39|jstor=1576152|doi=10.2307/1576152|s2cid=191383265}}</ref>

[[File:Yamaha GS-1 FM Synthesizer Programming Computer.jpg|thumb|The programming computer for Yamaha's first FM synthesizer GS1. [[CCRMA]], Stanford University.]]
[[John Chowning]]'s work on [[FM synthesis]] from the 1960s to the 1970s allowed much more efficient digital synthesis,<ref>{{cite book|last=Dean|first=Roger T.|title=The Oxford Handbook of Computer Music|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533161-5|page=20}}</ref> eventually leading to the development of the affordable FM synthesis-based [[Yamaha DX7]] [[digital synthesizer]], released in 1983.<ref name="dean1">{{harvnb|Dean|2009|page=1}}</ref>

<blockquote>Interesting sounds must have a fluidity and changeability that allows them to remain fresh to the ear. In computer music this subtle ingredient is bought at a high computational cost, both in terms of the number of items requiring detail in a score and in the amount of interpretive work the instruments must produce to realize this detail in sound.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Roads|editor-first=Curtis|editor-link=Curtis Roads|title=The Music Machine: Selected Readings from 'Computer Music Journal'|year=1992 |publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-68078-3|page=344|last=Loy|first=D. Gareth|author-link=Gareth Loy|chapter=Notes on the implementation of MUSBOX...}}</ref> </blockquote>

=== In Japan ===
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In Japan, experiments in computer music date back to 1962, when [[Keio University]] professor Sekine and [[Toshiba]] engineer Hayashi experimented with the {{ill|TOSBAC|jp|vertical-align=sup}} computer. This resulted in a piece entitled ''TOSBAC Suite'', influenced by the ''Illiac Suite''. Later Japanese computer music compositions include a piece by Kenjiro Ezaki presented during [[Osaka Expo '70]] and "Panoramic Sonore" (1974) by music critic Akimichi Takeda. Ezaki also published an article called "Contemporary Music and Computers" in 1970. Since then, Japanese research in computer music has largely been carried out for commercial purposes in [[popular music]], though some of the more serious Japanese musicians used large computer systems such as the ''[[Fairlight (company)|Fairlight]]'' in the 1970s.<ref name="shimazu104">{{cite journal|last=Shimazu|first=Takehito|title=The History of Electronic and Computer Music in Japan: Significant Composers and Their Works|journal=[[Leonardo Music Journal]]|year=1994|volume=4|pages=102–106 [104]|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/93116556/The-History-of-Electronic-and-Experimental-Music-in-Japan|access-date=9 July 2012|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|doi=10.2307/1513190|jstor=1513190|s2cid=193084745|url-access=subscription}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In the late 1970s these systems became commercialized, including systems like the [[Roland MC-8 Microcomposer]], where a [[microprocessor]]-based system controls an [[analog synthesizer]], released in 1978.<ref name="shimazu104"/>  In addition to the Yamaha DX7, the advent of inexpensive digital [[Microprocessor|chips]] and [[microcomputer]]s opened the door to real-time generation of computer music.<ref name="dean1"/> In the 1980s, Japanese personal computers such as the [[NEC PC-8801|NEC PC-88]] came installed with FM synthesis [[sound chip]]s and featured [[List of audio programming languages|audio programming language]]s such as [[Music Macro Language]] (MML) and [[MIDI]] interfaces, which were most often used to produce [[video game music]], or [[chiptune]]s.<ref name="shimazu104"/> By the early 1990s, the performance of microprocessor-based computers reached the point that real-time generation of computer music using more general programs and algorithms became possible.<ref>{{harvnb|Dean|2009|pages=4–5}}: "... by the 90s ... digital sound manipulation (using MSP or many other platforms) became widespread, fluent and stable."</ref>