Editing Culture of ancient Rome (section)

==Social structure==
{{Main|Social class in ancient Rome}}
[[File:Scène de banquet, fresque, Herculanum.jpg|thumb|A late [[Roman Republic|Republican]] banquet scene in a fresco from [[Herculaneum]], Italy, c. 50 BC; the woman wears a transparent [[silk]] gown while the man to the left raises a [[rhyton]] drinking vessel]]
[[File:Giovane con rotolo.JPG|thumb|A [[fresco]] [[Roman portraiture|portrait]] of a man holding a [[papyrus]] roll, [[Pompeii]], Italy, 1st century AD]]
The center of the early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the [[Family in ancient Rome|family]], which was not only marked by biological relations but also by the legally constructed relation of ''patria potestas'' ("paternal power"). The ''[[pater familias]]'' was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife (if she was given to him ''[[Manus marriage|cum manu]]'', otherwise the father of the wife retained ''patria potestas''), his children, the wives of his sons (again if married ''cum manu'' which became rarer towards the end of the Republic), the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen (liberated slaves, the first generation still legally inferior to the freeborn), disposing of them and of their goods at will, even having them put to death.

[[Slavery in ancient Rome|Slavery and slaves]] were part of the social order. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. There were [[Slavery in ancient Rome#The slave trade|slave market]]s where they could be bought and sold. Roman law was not consistent about the status of slaves, except that they were considered like any other [[Personal property|moveable]] [[property]]. Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally, [[mutilation]] and [[murder]] of slaves was prohibited by legislation,{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} although outrageous cruelty continued. In AD 4, the ''[[Lex Aelia Sentia]]'' specified minimum age limits for both owners (20) and slaves (30) before formal [[manumission]] could occur.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gardner|first=Jane|date=1991|title=The Purpose of the Lex Fufia Caninia|url=https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/653793|journal=Echos du Monde Classique: Classical Views|volume=35, 1|pages=21–39|via=Project MUSE}}</ref>

Apart from these families (called ''gentes'') and the slaves (legally objects, mancipia, i.e., "kept in the [master's] hand") there were [[Plebs|plebeians]] that did not exist from a legal perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts, even though they were not slaves. To deal with this problem, the so-called ''[[Patronage in ancient Rome|clientela]]'' was created. By this institution, a plebeian joined the family of a patrician (in a legal sense) and could close contracts by mediation of his patrician ''pater familias''. Everything the plebeian possessed or acquired legally belonged to the [[gens]]. He was not allowed to form his own gens.

The authority of the ''pater familias'' was unlimited, be it in civil rights as well as in criminal law. The king's duty was to be head over the military, to deal with foreign politics and also to decide on controversies between the gentes. The patricians were divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, Titientes, Luceres).

During the time of the [[Roman Republic]] (founded in 509 BC) [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizens]] were allowed to vote. This included [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] and [[Plebs|plebeians]]. Women, slaves, and children were not allowed to vote.

There were two assemblies: the ''[[Centuriate Assembly|comitia centuriata]]'' and the ''[[Tribal Assembly|comitia populi tributa]]'', which were made up of all the citizens of Rome. In the ''comitia centuriata'' the Romans were divided according to age, wealth and residence. The citizens in each tribe were divided into five classes based on property and then each group was subdivided into two centuries by age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assembly of tribes, each century had one vote. The ''comitia centuriata'' elected the [[praetor]]s (judicial magistrates), the [[Roman censor|censors]], and the [[Roman consul|consuls]]. The ''comitia tributa'' comprised thirty-five tribes from Rome and the country. Each tribe had a single vote. The ''comitia tributa'' elected the [[quaestor]]s (financial magistrates) and the patrician [[curule aedile]].

[[File:Fresco depicting a seated woman, from the Villa Arianna at Stabiae, Naples National Archaeological Museum (17393152265).jpg|thumb|left|[[Fresco]] of a seated woman from [[Stabiae]], 1st century AD]]
Over time, [[Roman law]] evolved considerably, as well as social views, emancipating (to increasing degrees) family members. Justice greatly increased, as well. The Romans became more efficient at considering laws and punishments.

Life in the ancient Roman cities revolved around the [[Forum (Roman)|Forum]], the [[central business district]], where most of the Romans would go for marketing, shopping, trading, banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould [[public opinion]], and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to them or others. Before [[sunrise]], children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Elders would dress, take a breakfast by 11 o'clock, have a nap and in the afternoon or evening would generally go to the Forum. Going to a public bath at least once daily was a habit with most Roman [[citizen]]s. There were separate baths for men and women. The main difference was that the women's baths were smaller than the men's, and did not have a ''[[frigidarium]]'' (cold room) or a ''[[palaestra]]'' (exercise area). {{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

Different types of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free of cost, were available in ancient Rome. Depending on the nature of the events, they were scheduled during daytime, afternoons, evenings, or late nights. Huge crowds gathered at the [[Colosseum]] to watch events such as events involving [[gladiator]]s, combats between men, or fights between men and wild animals. The [[Circus Maximus]] was used for chariot racing.

Life in the countryside was slow-paced but lively, with numerous local [[festival]]s and social events. Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor of nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. On the other hand, slave labor slogged on continuously, for long hours and all seven days, and ensuring comforts and creating wealth for their masters. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over from the noontime preparations.

===Clothing===
{{Main|Clothing in ancient Rome}}
[[File:Togato, I sec dc. con testa di restauro da un ritratto di nerva, inv. 2286.JPG|thumb|upright|Toga-clad statue, restored with the head of the emperor [[Nerva]]]]

In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The [[tunic]] worn by [[plebeians]] (common people) like shepherds was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the ''tunica angusticlavi''; senators wore tunics with purple stripes (''clavi''), called ''tunica laticlavi''. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians.

The many types of [[toga]]s were also named. Boys, up until the festival of [[Liberalia]], wore the ''toga praetexta'', which was a toga with a crimson or purple border, also worn by magistrates in office. The ''toga virilis'', (or ''toga pura'') or man's toga was worn by men who had come of age to signify their citizenship in Rome. The ''toga picta'' was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The ''toga pulla'' was worn in mourning.

Even [[footwear]] indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange [[sandal (footwear)|sandals]], senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors such as white, yellow, or green.

The ''[[bulla (amulet)|bulla]]'' was a [[locket]]-like amulet worn by children. When about to marry, the woman would donate her ''[[Lunula (amulet)|lunula]] (also known as partha)'' to the household gods, along with her toys, to signify maturity and womanhood.

Men typically wore a toga, and women wore a [[stola]]. The woman's ''stola'' was a dress worn over a tunic, and was usually brightly colored. A ''[[Fibula (brooch)|fibula]]'' (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A ''palla'', or shawl, was often worn with the ''stola''.

===Food===
{{Main|Ancient Roman cuisine|Food and dining in the Roman Empire}}
Since the beginning of the Republic until 200 BC, ancient Romans had very simple food habits. Simple food was generally consumed at around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was called ''ientaculum'', lunch was ''prandium'', and dinner was called ''[[cena]]''. Appetizers were called ''gustatio'', and dessert was called ''secunda mensa'' ("second table"). Usually, a nap or rest followed this.

The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a ''[[triclinium]]''. Fingers were used to take foods which were prepared beforehand and brought to the diners. Spoons were used for soups.

[[File:Still life with eggs, birds and bronze dishes, Pompeii.jpg|thumb|left|Eggs, thrushes, napkin, and vessels (wall painting from the [[House of Julia Felix]], Pompeii)]]
[[Ancient Rome and wine|Wine in Rome]] did not become common or mass-produced until around 250 BC. It was more commonly produced around the time of [[Cato the Elder]], who mentions in his book ''[[De agri cultura]]'' that the vineyard was the most important aspect of a good farm.<ref>E. M. Jellinek, Drinkers and Alcoholics in Ancient Rome.</ref> Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap; however, it was always mixed with water.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} This was the case even during explicit evening drinking events (''comissatio'') where an important part of the festivity was choosing an ''arbiter bibendi'' ("judge of drinking") who was, among other things, responsible for deciding the ratio of wine to water in the drinking wine. Wine to water ratios of 1:2, 1:3, or 1:4 were commonly used. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. ''[[Mulsum (beverage)|Mulsum]]'' was honeyed wine, ''mustum'' was grape juice, ''mulsa'' was honeyed water. The per-person-consumption of wine per day in the city of Rome has been estimated at 0.8 to 1.1 gallons for males, and about 0.5 gallons for females. Even the notoriously strict [[Cato the Elder]] recommended distributing a daily ration of low quality wine of more than 0.5 gallons among the slaves forced to work on farms. {{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

Drinking non-watered wine on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign of [[alcoholism]] whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were already recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic&mdash;in the gossip-crazy society of the city bound to come to light and easily verified&mdash;was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals employed by some of Rome's greatest orators like [[Cicero]] and [[Julius Caesar]]. Prominent Roman alcoholics include [[Mark Antony]], Cicero's own son Marcus ([[Cicero Minor]]) and the emperor [[Tiberius]] whose soldiers gave him the unflattering nickname Biberius Caldius Mero (lit. "Boozer of Pure Wine," Sueton Tib. 42,1). [[Cato the Younger]] was also known as a heavy drinker, frequently found stumbling home disoriented and the worse for wear in the early hours of morning by fellow citizens.

During the Imperial period, [[staple food]] of the lower class Romans (plebeians) was vegetable [[porridge]] and [[bread]], and occasionally [[fish]], [[meat]], [[olive]]s and [[fruit]]s. Sometimes, [[Subsidy|subsidized]] or free foods were distributed in cities. The patrician's aristocracy had elaborate dinners, with parties and wines and a variety of comestibles. Sometimes, dancing girls would entertain the diners. Women and children ate separately, but in the later Empire period, with permissiveness creeping in, even decent women would attend such dinner parties.

===Education===
{{Main|Education in ancient Rome}}
[[File:Busto maschile.JPG|thumb|left|[[Roman portraiture]] fresco of a young man with a [[papyrus]] [[scroll]], from [[Herculaneum]], 1st century AD]]
Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of [[Reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]] and [[counting]]. By the age of twelve, they would be learning [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[grammar]] and [[literature]], followed by training for [[public speaking]]. [[Eloquence|Oratory]] was an art to be practiced and learned and good [[orator]]s commanded respect; becoming an effective orator was one of the objectives of [[education]] and [[learning]]. Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education. School was mostly for boys, but some wealthy girls were tutored at home; however, girls could still go to school sometimes.