Editing Decentralization (section)

== History ==
{{Integralism}}
[[File:Alexis de Tocqueville.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]]]
The word "''centralisation''" came into use in France in 1794 as the post-[[French Revolution|Revolution]] [[French Directory]] leadership created a new government structure. The word "''décentralisation''" came into usage in the 1820s.<ref>Vivien A. Schmidt, ''Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of Decentralization'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUC&pg=PA22 p. 22] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505110712/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUC&pg=PA22 |date=2016-05-05 }}, {{ISBN|978-0521036054}}</ref> "Centralization" entered written English in the first third of the 1800s;<ref>[[Barbara Levick]], ''Claudius'', Psychology Press, 2012, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rTDNNO4_IMAC&pg=PA81 p. 81] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602225624/https://books.google.com/books?id=rTDNNO4_IMAC&pg=PA81 |date=2016-06-02 }}, {{ISBN|978-0415166195}}</ref> mentions of decentralization also first appear during those years. In the mid-1800s [[Alexis de Tocqueville|Tocqueville]] would write that the French Revolution began with "a push towards decentralization" but became, "in the end, an extension of centralization."<ref name=Schmidtpage10>Vivien A. Schmidt, ''Democratizing France: The Political and Administrative History of Decentralization'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUC&pg=PA10 p. 10] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520135541/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsltI4XKXTUC&pg=PA10 |date=2016-05-20 }}.</ref> In 1863, retired French bureaucrat [[Maurice Block]] wrote an article called "Decentralization" for a French journal that reviewed the dynamics of government and bureaucratic centralization and recent French efforts at decentralization of government functions.<ref>Robert Leroux, ''French Liberalism in the 19th Century: An Anthology'', Chapter 6: Maurice Block on "Decentralization", Routledge, 2012, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Hhf1iGshBKEC&dq=19th+century+decentralization&pg=PA255 p. 255] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529132740/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hhf1iGshBKEC&pg=PA255 |date=2016-05-29 }}, {{ISBN|978-1136313011}}</ref>

Ideas of liberty and decentralization were carried to their logical conclusions during the 19th and 20th centuries by anti-state political activists calling themselves "[[Anarchism|anarchists]]", "[[Libertarianism|libertarians]]", and even decentralists. [[Tocqueville]] was an advocate, writing: "Decentralization has, not only an administrative value but also a civic dimension since it increases the opportunities for citizens to take interest in public affairs; it makes them get accustomed to using freedom. And from the accumulation of these local, active, persnickety freedoms, is born the most efficient counterweight against the claims of the central government, even if it were supported by an impersonal, collective will."<ref name=EarthInstitute>[http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/history_fao.html A History of Decentralization] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511000503/http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization/English/General/history_fao.html |date=2013-05-11 }}, [[Earth Institute]] of [[Columbia University]] website, ''accessed February 4, 2013''.</ref> [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865), influential anarchist theorist<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia Americana |editor=George Edward Rines |year=1918 |publisher=Encyclopedia Americana Corp. |location=New York |oclc=7308909 |page=624 |title-link=Encyclopedia Americana }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Peter |title=Émile Durkheim |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn = 978-0415110471 |page=79}}</ref> wrote: "All my economic ideas as developed over twenty-five years can be summed up in the words: agricultural-industrial federation. All my political ideas boil down to a similar formula: political federation or decentralization."<ref>"Du principe Fédératif" ("Principle of Federation"), 1863.</ref>

In the early 20th century, America's response to the centralization of economic wealth and political power was a decentralist movement. It blamed large-scale industrial production for destroying middle-class shop keepers and small manufacturers and promoted increased property ownership and a return to small scale living. The decentralist movement attracted [[Southern Agrarians]] like [[Robert Penn Warren]], as well as journalist [[Herbert Agar]].<ref>Craig R. Prentiss, ''Debating God's Economy: Social Justice in America on the Eve of Vatican II,'' [[Penn State Press]], 2008,  [https://books.google.com/books?id=wWY-DhOnFXkC&q=early%20advocate%20of%20decentralism&pg=PA42 p. 43] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503140538/https://books.google.com/books?id=wWY-DhOnFXkC&pg=PA42 |date=2016-05-03 }}, {{ISBN|978-0271033419}}</ref> [[New Left]] and libertarian individuals who identified with social, economic, and often political decentralism through the ensuing years included [[Ralph Borsodi]], [[Wendell Berry]], [[Paul Goodman]], [[Carl Oglesby]], [[Karl Hess]], [[Donald Livingston]], [[Kirkpatrick Sale]] (author of ''Human Scale''),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kauffman |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Kauffman |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT149 |year=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]], [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n71 |isbn=978-1412965804 |oclc=750831024 |lccn=2008009151 |pages=111–113 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501081511/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT149 |archive-date=2016-05-01 |chapter=Decentralism }}</ref> [[Murray Bookchin]],<ref>David De Leon, ''Leaders from the 1960s: A Biographical Sourcebook of American Activism'', [[Greenwood Publishing Group]], 1994, [https://books.google.com/books?id=oHYD-XUiSBEC&dq=libertarian+decentralism&pg=PA297 p. 297] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105043132/https://books.google.com/books?id=oHYD-XUiSBEC&pg=PA297 |date=2015-11-05 }}, {{ISBN|978-0313274145}}</ref> [[Dorothy Day]],<ref>Nancy L. Roberts, ''Dorothy Day and the Catholic worker,'' Volume 84, Issue 1 of National security essay series, [[State University of New York Press]], 1984, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wx5A4UE05QYC&dq=libertarian+decentralist&pg=PA11 p. 11] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wx5A4UE05QYC&pg=PA11&resnum=3 |date=2016-05-17 }}, {{ISBN|978-0873959391}}</ref> Senator [[Mark O. Hatfield]],<ref>[[Jesse Walker]], [http://reason.com/blog/2011/08/08/mark-o-hatfield-rip Mark O. Hatfield, RIP] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603154349/http://reason.com/blog/2011/08/08/mark-o-hatfield-rip |date=2013-06-03 }}, [[Reason (magazine)|Reason]], August 8, 2011.</ref> Mildred J. Loomis<ref>Mildred J. Loomis, ''Decentralism: Where It Came From – Where Is It Going?'', Black Rose Books, 2005, {{ISBN|978-1551642499}}</ref> and [[Bill Kauffman]].<ref>[[Bill Kauffman]], ''Bye Bye, Miss American Empire: Neighborhood Patriots, Backcountry rebels'', Chelsea Green Publishing, 2010, [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781933392806 <!-- quote=Bill Kauffman decentralist libertarian. --> p. xxxi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505221514/https://books.google.com/books?id=b98t6YKdmCYC&pg=PR31 |date=2016-05-05 }}, {{ISBN|978-1933392806}}</ref>

[[File:Megatrendsbookcover.jpg|thumb|upright=0.55|Decentralization was one of ten ''Megatrends'' identified in this best seller.]]
[[Leopold Kohr]], author of the 1957 book ''The Breakdown of Nations'' – known for its statement "Whenever something is wrong, something is too big" – was a major influence on [[E. F. Schumacher]], author of the 1973 bestseller ''[[Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered]]''.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html Dr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118221044/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html |date=2017-01-18 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'' obituary, February 28, 1994.</ref><ref>John Fullerton, [http://neweconomicsinstitute.org/publications/essays/fullerton/john/the-relevance-of-ef-schumacher-in-the-21st-century The Relevance of E. F. Schumacher in the 21st Century] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405220628/http://neweconomicsinstitute.org/publications/essays/fullerton/john/the-relevance-of-ef-schumacher-in-the-21st-century |date=2013-04-05 }}, [[New Economics Institute]], ''accessed February 7, 2013.''</ref> In the next few years a number of best-selling books promoted decentralization.

[[Daniel Bell]]'s ''The Coming of Post-Industrial Society''<ref name="Schmidtpage10" /> discussed the need for decentralization and a "comprehensive overhaul of government structure to find the appropriate size and scope of units", as well as the need to detach functions from current state boundaries, creating regions based on functions like water, transport, education and economics which might have "different 'overlays' on the map."<ref>W. Patrick McCray, ''The Visioneers: How a Group of Elite Scientists Pursued Space Colonies, Nanotechnologies, and a Limitless Future'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2012, [https://archive.org/details/visioneershowgro0000mccr/page/70 <!-- quote=The Visioneers Daniel bell. --> p. 70] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514212802/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-Xh0i4-mnYC&pg=PA70 |date=2016-05-14 }}, {{ISBN|978-0691139838}}</ref><ref>Daniel Bell, ''The Coming Of Post-industrial Society'', [[Basic Books]] version, 2008, [https://archive.org/details/comingofpostindu0000bell/page/320/mode/2up p. 320–21], {{ISBN|978-0786724734}}</ref> [[Alvin Toffler]] published ''[[Future Shock]]'' (1970) and ''[[The Third Wave (Toffler book)|The Third Wave]]'' (1980). Discussing the books in a later interview, Toffler said that industrial-style, centralized, top-down bureaucratic planning would be replaced by a more open, democratic, decentralized style which he called "anticipatory democracy".<ref>Alvin Toffler, ''Previews & Premises: An Interview with the Author of Future Shock and The Third Wave,'' Black Rose books, 1987, [https://books.google.com/books?id=gjbGnzqrulMC&q=%22Future%20Shock%22%20decentralization&pg=PA49 p. 50] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508113606/https://books.google.com/books?id=gjbGnzqrulMC&pg=PA49 |date=2016-05-08 }}, {{ISBN|978-0920057377}}</ref> [[Futurism|Futurist]] [[John Naisbitt]]'s 1982 book "Megatrends" was on [[The New York Times Best Seller list]] for more than two years and sold 14 million copies.<ref>[http://www.naisbitt.com/index.php?id=5 John Naisbitt biography] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916201124/http://www.naisbitt.com/index.php?id=5 |date=2013-09-16 }} at personal website, ''accessed February 10, 2013''.</ref> Naisbitt's book outlines 10 "megatrends", the fifth of which is from centralization to decentralization.<ref>Sam Inkinen, ''Mediapolis: Aspects of Texts, Hypertexts and Multimedial Communication,'' Volume 25 of Research in Text Theory, [[Walter de Gruyter]], 1999,  [https://books.google.com/books?id=UdOg403f5ykC&q=Naisbitt%20Megatrends%20decentralization&pg=PA272 p. 272] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428003337/https://books.google.com/books?id=UdOg403f5ykC&pg=PA272 |date=2016-04-28 }}, {{ISBN|978-3110807059}}</ref> In 1996 David Osborne and Ted Gaebler had a best selling book ''Reinventing Government'' proposing decentralist public administration theories which became labeled the "[[New Public Management]]".<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Public Administration Review|volume = 56|number = 3 |date =May–June 1996|pages = 247–55|title = Role of the "Reinventing Government" Movement in Federal Management Reform|last = Kamensky|first = John M.|doi = 10.2307/976448 |jstor = 976448}}</ref>

Stephen Cummings wrote that decentralization became a "revolutionary megatrend" in the 1980s.<ref>Stephen Cummings, ''ReCreating Strategy'', SAGE, 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZymtYIEUZj0C&q=Stephen%20Cummings%20decentralization%20Megatrend&pg=PA157 p. 157] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522130814/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZymtYIEUZj0C&pg=PA157 |date=2016-05-22 }}, {{ISBN|978-0857026514}}</ref> In 1983 Diana Conyers asked if decentralization was the "latest fashion" in development administration.<ref>Diana Conyers, [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pad.4230030202/abstract "Decentralization: The latest fashion in development administration?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522094503/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pad.4230030202/abstract |date=2014-05-22 }}, Public Administration and Development, Volume 3, Issue 2, pp. 97–109, April/June 1983, via [[John Wiley & Sons#Wiley Online Library|Wiley Online Library]], ''accessed February 4, 2013''.</ref> [[Cornell University]]'s project on Restructuring Local Government states that decentralization refers to the "global trend" of devolving responsibilities to regional or local governments.<ref name=Warner>[http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/viewpage_r.asp?ID=Decentralization Decentralization] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026031204/http://government.cce.cornell.edu/doc/viewpage_r.asp?ID=Decentralization |date=2012-10-26 }}, article at the "[http://government.cce.cornell.edu/ Restructuring local government project] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117005814/http://government.cce.cornell.edu/ |date=2013-01-17 }}" of Dr. Mildred Warner, [[Cornell University]], ''accessed February 4, 2013''.</ref> Robert J. Bennett's ''Decentralization, Intergovernmental Relations and Markets: Towards a Post-Welfare Agenda'' describes how after [[World War II]] governments pursued a centralized "[[Welfarism|welfarist]]" policy of entitlements which now has become a "post-welfare" policy of intergovernmental and market-based decentralization.<ref name=Warner/>

In 1983, "Decentralization" was identified as one of the "[[Ten Key Values]]" of the Green Movement in the United States.

A 1999 [[United Nations Development Programme]] report stated:
{{blockquote|"A large number of developing and transitional countries have embarked on some form of decentralization programmes. This trend is coupled with a growing interest in the role of civil society and the private sector as partners to governments in seeking new ways of service delivery&nbsp;... Decentralization of governance and the strengthening of local governing capacity is in part also a function of broader societal trends. These include, for example, the growing distrust of government generally, the spectacular demise of some of the most centralized regimes in the world (especially the Soviet Union) and the emerging separatist demands that seem to routinely pop up in one or another part of the world. The movement toward local accountability and greater control over one's destiny is, however, not solely the result of the negative attitude towards central government. Rather, these developments, as we have already noted, are principally being driven by a strong desire for greater participation of citizens and private sector organizations in governance."<ref>{{cite web|title =Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions|date = October 1999|pages= 11–12|url = http://web.undp.org/evaluation/evaluations/documents/decentralization_working_report.PDF| publisher = United Nations Development Programme}}</ref>}}