Editing Democratic-Republican Party (section)

== History ==

===Founding, 1789–1796===
{{further|Presidency of George Washington|Anti-Administration party|First Party System}}
{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=300|image1=Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800).jpg|image2=James Madison.jpg|caption1=[[Thomas Jefferson]], 3rd president of the United States (1801–1809)|caption2=[[James Madison]], 4th president of the United States (1809–1817)}}
In the [[1788–89 United States presidential election|1788–89 presidential election]], the first such election following the ratification of the [[United States Constitution]] in 1788, [[George Washington]] won the votes of every member of the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]].<ref name="GWelections">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/washington/campaigns-and-elections |title=George Washington: Campaigns and Elections |last=Knott |first=Stephen |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728033729/https://millercenter.org/president/washington/campaigns-and-elections |archive-date=July 28, 2017 |access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref> His unanimous victory in part reflected the fact that no formal [[political parties]] had formed at the national level in the [[United States]] prior to 1789, though the country had been broadly polarized between the [[Federalism in the United States#Early federalism|Federalists]], who supported ratification of the Constitution, and the [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]], who opposed ratification.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=25, 29}} Washington selected [[Thomas Jefferson]] as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]] as [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]],<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 282–284</ref> and he relied on [[James Madison]] as a key adviser and ally in Congress.<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 292–293</ref>

Hamilton implemented an expansive economic program, establishing the [[First Bank of the United States]],<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 293–298</ref> and convincing Congress to [[Funding Act of 1790|assume the debts]] of state governments.<ref>{{harvp|Bordewich|2016}}, pp. 244–252</ref> Hamilton pursued his programs in the belief that they would foster a prosperous and stable country.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=44–45}} His policies engendered an opposition, chiefly concentrated in the [[Southern United States]], that objected to Hamilton's [[Anglophilia]] and accused him of unduly favoring well-connected wealthy Northern merchants and speculators. Madison emerged as the leader of the congressional opposition while Jefferson, who declined to publicly criticize Hamilton while both served in Washington's Cabinet, worked behind the scenes to stymie Hamilton's programs.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=45–48}} Jefferson and Madison established the ''[[National Gazette]]'', a newspaper which recast national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans.<ref>{{harvp|Wood|2009}}, pp. 150–151</ref> In the [[1792 United States presidential election|1792 election]], Washington effectively ran unopposed for president, but Jefferson and Madison backed New York Governor [[George Clinton (New York)|George Clinton]]'s unsuccessful attempt to unseat Vice President [[John Adams]].{{sfnp|Thompson|1980|pp=174–175}}

Political leaders on both sides were reluctant to label their respective faction as a political party, but distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress by the end of 1793. Jefferson's followers became known as the Republicans (or sometimes as the Democratic-Republicans)<ref name="drname"/> and Hamilton's followers became the [[Federalist Party|Federalists]].<ref>{{harvp|Wood|2009}}, pp. 161–162</ref> While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy became even more important as war broke out between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] (favored by Federalists) and [[First French Republic|France]], which Republicans favored until 1799.<ref name="auto1">{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 299–302, 309–311</ref> Partisan tensions escalated as a result of the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] and Washington's subsequent denunciation of the [[Democratic-Republican Societies]], a type of new local political societies that favored democracy and generally supported the Jeffersonian position.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=60, 64–65}} Historians use the term "Democratic-Republican" to describe these new organizations, but that name was rarely used at the time. They usually called themselves "Democratic", "Republican", "True Republican", "Constitutional", "United Freeman", "Patriotic", "Political", "Franklin", or "Madisonian".<ref>Foner found only two that used the actual term "Democratic-Republican", including the "Democratic-Republican Society of Dumfries", Virginia, 1794. Philip S. Foner, ''The Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790-1800: A Documentary Source-book of Constitutions, Declarations, Addresses, Resolutions, and Toasts'' (1977) pp 350, 370.</ref> The ratification of the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Republicans.<ref name="Ferling300s">{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 323–328, 338–344</ref>

By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux.<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2003}}, pp. 397–400</ref> As Washington declined to seek a third term, the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]] became the first contested president election. Having retired from Washington's Cabinet in 1793, Jefferson had left the leadership of the Democratic-Republicans in Madison's hands. Nonetheless, the Democratic-Republican [[congressional nominating caucus]] chose Jefferson as the party's presidential nominee, in the belief that he would be the party's strongest candidate; the caucus chose Senator [[Aaron Burr]] of New York as Jefferson's running mate.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=72–73, 86}} Meanwhile, an informal caucus of Federalist leaders nominated a ticket of John Adams and [[Thomas Pinckney]].<ref name="mcdonald178181" /> Though the candidates themselves largely stayed out of the fray, supporters of the candidates waged an active campaign; Federalists attacked Jefferson as a [[Francophile]] and [[atheist]], while the Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an anglophile and a [[Monarchism|monarchist]].<ref name="JAelections">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/adams/campaigns-and-elections |title=John Adams: Campaigns and Elections |last=Taylor |first=C. James |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2017}}</ref> Ultimately, Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president.<ref name="mcdonald178181">{{harvp|McDonald|1974}}, pp. 178–181</ref>{{efn-la|name=12thA|Prior to the ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Under these rules, an individual who received more votes than any other candidate, and received votes from a majority of the electors, was elected as president. If neither of those conditions were met, the House of Representatives would select the president through a contingent election in which each state delegation received one vote. After the selection of the president, the individual who finished with the most votes was elected as vice president, with the Senate holding a contingent election in the case of a tie.<ref>{{Citation |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |title=Contingent Election of the President and Vice President by Congress: Perspectives and Contemporary Analysis |date=3 November 2016 |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40504.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service}}</ref>}}

===Adams and the Revolution of 1800===
{{Further|Presidency of John Adams}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1800.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Thomas Jefferson]] defeated [[John Adams]] in the 1800 presidential election, thereby becoming the first Democratic-Republican president.]]

Shortly after Adams took office, he dispatched a group of envoys to seek peaceful relations with France, which had begun seizing American merchantmen trading with Britain after the ratification of the Jay Treaty. The failure of talks, and the French demand for bribes in what became known as the [[XYZ Affair]], outraged the American public and led to the [[Quasi-War]], an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. The Federalist-controlled Congress passed measures to expand the [[United States Armed Forces|American military]] and also pushed through the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]]. These acts restricted speech critical of the government while also implementing stricter naturalization requirements.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=77–78}} Numerous journalists and other individuals aligned with the Democratic-Republicans were prosecuted under the Sedition Act, sparking a backlash against the Federalists.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=80–82}} Meanwhile, Jefferson and Madison drafted the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]], which held that state legislatures could determine the constitutionality of federal laws.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=78–79}}

In the [[1800 United States presidential election|1800 presidential election]], the Democratic-Republicans once again nominated a ticket of Jefferson and Burr. Shortly after a Federalist caucus re-nominated President Adams on a ticket with [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], Adams dismissed two Hamilton allies from his Cabinet, leading to an open break between the two key figures in the Federalist Party.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=85–87}} Though the Federalist Party united against Jefferson's candidacy and waged an effective campaign in many states, the Democratic-Republicans won the election by winning most Southern electoral votes and carrying the crucial state of New York.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=86, 91–92}}

A significant element in the party's success in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore and other east-coast cities were [[Society of United Irishmen|United Irish]] exiles, and other [[Irish Americans|Irish immigrants]], whom the Federalists regarded with distinct suspicion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carter |first=Edward C. |title=A "Wild Irishman" under Every Federalist's Bed: Naturalization in Philadelphia, 1789-1806 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/987049 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=178–189 |date=1989 |issn=0003-049X |jstor=987049}}</ref><ref name="Gilmore">{{cite book |last1=Gilmore |first1=Peter |last2=Parkhill |first2=Trevor |last3=Roulston |first3=William |title=Exiles of '98: Ulster Presbyterians and the United States |url=https://www.ancestryireland.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Exiles-lo-res.pdf |publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation |location=Belfast, UK |date=2018 |pages=25–37 |access-date=16 January 2021 |isbn=9781909556621}}</ref> Among these was [[William Duane (journalist)|William Duane]] who in his newspaper, the ''[[Philadelphia Aurora]]'', exposed the details of the [[James Ross (Pennsylvania politician)|Ross Bill]], by means of which the Federalist-controlled Congress sought to establish a closed-door Grand Committee with powers to disqualify [[United States Electoral College|College electors]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Weisberger |first=Bernard A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXU3KFC9lOcC |title=America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the First Contested Election |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-06-211768-7 |pages=235}}</ref> Adams was to name Duane one of the three or four men most responsible for his eventual defeat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Kim T. |date=1977 |title=William Duane, Philadelphia's Democratic Republicans, and the Origins of Modern Politics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20091178 |journal=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=(365–387) 368 |jstor=20091178 |issn=0031-4587}}</ref>

Jefferson and Burr both finished with 73 electoral votes, more than Adams or Pinckney, necessitating a contingent election between Jefferson and Burr in the House of Representatives.{{efn-la|name=12thA}} Burr declined to take his name out of consideration, and the House deadlocked as most Democratic-Republican congressmen voted for Jefferson and most Federalists voted for Burr. Preferring Jefferson to Burr, Hamilton helped engineer Jefferson's election on the 36th ballot of the contingent election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=92–94}} Jefferson would later describe the 1800 election, which also saw Democratic-Republicans gain control of Congress, as the "Revolution of 1800", writing that it was "as real of a revolution in the principles of our government as that of [1776] was in its form."{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=97–98}} In the final months of his presidency, Adams reached an agreement with France to end the Quasi-War<ref>{{harvp|Brown|1975}}, pp. 165–166</ref> and appointed several Federalist judges, including Chief Justice [[John Marshall]].<ref>{{harvp|Brown|1975}}, pp. 198–200</ref>

===Jefferson's presidency, 1801–1809===
{{Further|Presidency of Thomas Jefferson}}
[[File:Louisiana Purchase.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803 totaled {{convert|827,987|lk=in|sqmi|km2|abbr=off|sp=us}}, doubling the size of the United States.]]
Despite the intensity of the 1800 election, the transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans was peaceful.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=99–100}} In his inaugural address, Jefferson indicated that he would seek to reverse many Federalist policies, but he also emphasized reconciliation, noting that "every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle".{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=95–97}} He appointed a geographically balanced and ideologically moderate Cabinet that included Madison as Secretary of State and [[Albert Gallatin]] as Secretary of the Treasury; Federalists were excluded from the Cabinet, but Jefferson appointed some prominent Federalists and allowed many other Federalists to keep their positions.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=101–102}} Gallatin persuaded Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States, a major part of the Hamiltonian program, but other Federalist policies were scrapped.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=291–296}} Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican allies eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes,<ref>[[#Bailey2007|Bailey, 2007]], p. 216.</ref> shrank the army and the navy,<ref>[[#Chernow04|Chernow, 2004]], p. 671.</ref> repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and pardoned all ten individuals who had been prosecuted under the acts.{{sfnp|McDonald|1976|pp=41–42}}

With the repeal of Federalist laws and programs, many Americans had little contact with the federal government in their daily lives, with the exception of the [[United States Postal Service|postal service]].{{sfnp|Wood|2009|p=293}} Partly as a result of these spending cuts, Jefferson lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million between 1801 and 1809.<ref name="Meacham387">[[#Meacham|Meacham, 2012]], p. 387.</ref> Though he was largely able to reverse Federalist policies, Federalists retained a bastion of power on the Supreme Court; [[Marshall Court]] rulings continued to reflect Federalist ideals until Chief Justice Marshall's death in the 1830s.<ref name="Appleby6569">Appleby, 2003, pp. 65–69</ref> In the Supreme Court case of ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'', the Marshall Court established the power of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], through which the [[Federal judiciary of the United States|judicial branch]] had the final word on the constitutionality of federal laws.<ref name="Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63">Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63</ref>

[[File:Albert Gallatin, by Rembrandt Peale, from life, 1805.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Albert Gallatin]] served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents Jefferson and Madison.]]

By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the [[Mississippi River]].{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=357–359}} Many in the United States, particularly those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]].{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=63–64}} In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched [[James Monroe]] to France to join ambassador [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert Livingston]] on a diplomatic mission to purchase New Orleans.{{sfnp|Nugent|2008|pp=61–62}} To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=108}} After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding.<ref name="Rodriguez97">[[#Rodriguez|Rodriguez, 2002]], p. 97.</ref> The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States, and Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France.{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=64–65}} Though the Louisiana Purchase was widely popular, some Federalists criticized it; Congressman [[Fisher Ames]] argued that "We are to spend money of which we have too little for land of which we already have too much."{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=369–370}}

By 1804, Vice President Burr had thoroughly alienated Jefferson, and the Democratic-Republican presidential nominating caucus chose George Clinton as Jefferson's running mate for the [[1804 United States presidential election|1804 presidential election]]. That same year, Burr challenged Hamilton to a [[Burr–Hamilton duel|duel]] after taking offense to a comment allegedly made by Hamilton; Hamilton died in the subsequent duel. Bolstered by a superior party organization, Jefferson won the 1804 election in a landslide over Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=115–116}} In 1807, as the [[Napoleonic Wars]] continued, the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] announced the [[Orders in Council (1807)|Orders in Council]], which called for a blockade on French-controlled ports.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|p=12}} In response to subsequent British and French searches of American shipping, the Jefferson administration passed the [[Embargo Act of 1807]], which cut off American trade with Europe.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|p=13}} The embargo proved unpopular and difficult to enforce, especially in Federalist-leaning [[New England]], and expired at the end of Jefferson's second term.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=130–134}} Jefferson declined to seek a third term in the [[1808 United States presidential election|1808 presidential election]], but helped Madison triumph over George Clinton and James Monroe at the party's congressional nominating caucus. Madison won the general election in a landslide over Pinckney.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=134–135}}

===Madison's presidency, 1809–1817===
{{Further|Presidency of James Madison}}
{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=300|image1=Unsuccessful 1824 3.jpg|image2=George Peter Alexander Healy - Portrait of John C. Calhoun (ca. 1845) - Google Art Project (3x4 cropped).jpg|caption1=[[Henry Clay]]|caption2=[[John C. Calhoun]]}}
As attacks on American shipping continued after Madison took office, both Madison and the broader American public moved towards war.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=94–96}}.</ref> Public resentment towards Britain led to the election of a new generation of Democratic-Republican leaders, including [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], who championed high [[Tariffs in United States history|tariffs]], federally funded [[internal improvement]]s and a jingoistic attitude towards Britain.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=147–148}} On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=95–96}}.</ref> The declaration was passed largely along sectional and party lines, with intense opposition coming from the Federalists and some other congressmen from the Northeast.<ref name="RRA 217-224">Rutland, ''James Madison: The Founding Father'', pp. 217–24</ref> For many who favored war, national honor was at stake; [[John Quincy Adams]] wrote that the only alternative to war was "the abandonment of our right as an independent nation."{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=156}} George Clinton's nephew, [[DeWitt Clinton]], challenged Madison in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 presidential election]]. Though Clinton assembled a formidable coalition of Federalists and anti-Madison Democratic-Republicans, Madison won a close election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=156–159}}

Madison initially hoped for a quick end to the [[War of 1812]], but the war got off to a disastrous start as multiple American invasions of [[The Canadas|Canada]] were defeated.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=97–98}}.</ref> The United States had more military success in 1813, and American troops under [[William Henry Harrison]] defeated [[Tecumseh's confederacy]] in the [[Battle of the Thames]] in 1814, crushing Indian resistance to [[Territorial evolution of the United States|U.S. expansion]]. Britain shifted troops to North America in 1814 following Napoleon's abdication, and British forces [[Burning of Washington|captured and burnt Washington]] in August 1814.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=160–161}} In early 1815, Madison learned that his negotiators in Europe had signed the [[Treaty of Ghent]], ending the war without major concessions by either side.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=186–188}} Though it had no effect on the treaty, [[Andrew Jackson]]'s victory in the January 1815 [[Battle of New Orleans]] ended the war on a triumphant note.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=175–176}} Napoleon's defeat at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in June 1815 brought a final end to the Napoleonic Wars and European interference with American shipping.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=192, 201}} With Americans celebrating a successful "second war of independence", the Federalist Party slid towards national irrelevance.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=211–212}} The subsequent period of virtually one-party rule by the Democratic-Republican Party is known as the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]."{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

In his first term, Madison and his allies had largely hewed to Jefferson's domestic agenda of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt, and Congress allowed the national bank's charter to expire during Madison's first term.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=20, 68–70}} The challenges of the War of 1812 led many Democratic-Republicans to reconsider the role of the federal government.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=181–182}} When the [[14th United States Congress|14th Congress]] convened in December 1815, Madison proposed the re-establishment of the national bank, increased spending on the army and the navy, and a tariff designed to [[Protectionism|protect]] American goods from foreign competition. Madison's proposals were strongly criticized by strict constructionists like [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]], who argued that Madison's program "out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton."{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=195–198}} Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history, enacting the [[Tariff of 1816]] and establishing the [[Second Bank of the United States]].{{sfnp|Howe|2007|pp=82–84}} At the party's 1816 [[congressional nominating caucus]], Secretary of State James Monroe defeated Secretary of War [[William H. Crawford]] in a 65-to-54 vote.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=15–18}} The Federalists offered little opposition in the [[1816 United States presidential election|1816 presidential election]] and Monroe won in a landslide election.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=18–19}}

===Monroe and Era of Good Feelings, 1817–1825===
{{Further|Presidency of James Monroe}}
[[File:James Monroe White House portrait 1819.jpg|thumb|[[James Monroe]], 5th President of the United States (1817–1825)]]
[[File:ElectoralCollege1824.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Four Democratic-Republicans sought the presidency in 1824: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay.]]
Monroe believed that the existence of political parties was harmful to the United States,{{sfnp|Howe|pp=93–94}} and he sought to usher in the end of the Federalist Party by avoiding divisive policies and welcoming ex-Federalists into the fold.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=19–21}} Monroe favored infrastructure projects to promote economic development and, despite some constitutional concerns, signed bills providing federal funding for the [[National Road]] and other projects.<ref name="JM:DA">{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/monroe/domestic-affairs |title=James Monroe: Domestic Affairs |author-first1=Daniel|author-last1=Preston|date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=February 22, 2017}}</ref> Partly due to the mismanagement of national bank president [[William Jones (statesman)|William Jones]], the country experienced a prolonged economic recession known as the [[Panic of 1819]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=206–207}} The panic engendered a widespread resentment of the national bank and a distrust of [[banknote|paper money]] that would influence national politics long after the recession ended.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=209–210, 251–252}} Despite the ongoing economic troubles, the Federalists failed to field a serious challenger to Monroe in the [[1820 United States presidential election|1820 presidential election]], and Monroe won re-election essentially unopposed.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=217}}

During the proceedings over the admission of [[Missouri Territory]] as a state, Congressman [[James Tallmadge, Jr.]] of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by proposing amendments providing for the eventual exclusion of slavery from Missouri.{{sfnp|Howe|2007|p=147}} The amendments sparked the first major national [[slavery in the United States|slavery]] debate since the ratification of the Constitution,{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=28–29}} and instantly exposed the [[Sectionalism|sectional]] polarization over the issue of slavery.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2004|p=376|ps=: "[T]he sectional divisions among the Jeffersonian Republicans...offers historical paradoxes...in which hard-line slaveholding Southern Republicans rejected the egalitarian ideals of the slaveholder [Thomas] Jefferson while the antislavery Northern Republicans upheld them – even as Jefferson himself supported slavery's expansion on purportedly antislavery grounds.}} Northern Democratic-Republicans formed a coalition across partisan lines with the remnants of the Federalist Party in support of the amendments, while Southern Democratic-Republicans were almost unanimously against such the restrictions.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2004|pp=380, 386}} In February 1820, Congressman [[Jesse B. Thomas]] of [[Illinois]] proposed [[Missouri Compromise|a compromise]], in which Missouri would be admitted as a slave state, but slavery would be excluded in the remaining [[Territories of the United States|territories]] north of the [[parallel 36°30′ north]].{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=101–103}} A bill based on Thomas's proposal became law in April 1820.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=103–104}}

By 1824, the Federalist Party had largely collapsed as a national party, and the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]] was waged by competing members of the Democratic-Republican Party.{{sfnp|Parsons|2009|pages=70–72}} The party's congressional nominating caucus was largely ignored, and candidates were instead nominated by state legislatures.{{sfnp|Parsons|2009|pages=79–86}} Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, former Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, and General [[Andrew Jackson]] emerged as the major candidates in the election.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=386–389}} The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=386–389}}

As no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 election, the House of Representatives held a [[contingent election]] to determine the president.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=391–393, 398}} Clay personally disliked Adams but nonetheless supported him in the contingent election over Crawford, who opposed Clay's nationalist policies, and Jackson, whom Clay viewed as a potential tyrant.{{efn|Clay himself was not eligible in the contingent election because the House could only choose from the top-three candidates in the electoral vote tally. Clay finished a close fourth to Crawford in the electoral vote.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=254–255}}}} With Clay's backing, Adams won the contingent election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=254–255}} After Clay accepted appointment as Secretary of State, Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a "[[Corrupt Bargain]]" in which Adams promised Clay the appointment in return for Clay's support in the contingent election.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=391–393, 398}} Jackson, who was deeply angered by the result of the contingent election, returned to Tennessee, where the state legislature quickly nominated him for president in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 election]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=256–257}}

=== Final years, 1825–1829 ===
{{Further|Presidency of John Quincy Adams}}
[[File:JQA Photo Crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[John Quincy Adams]] won the 1824 presidential election as a Democratic-Republican after leaving the Federalist Party earlier in his career.]]
Adams shared Monroe's goal of ending partisan conflict, and his Cabinet included individuals of various ideological and regional backgrounds.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=106–107}}.</ref> In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda, calling for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory.<ref>{{harvp|Kaplan|2014|pages=402–403}}.</ref> His requests to Congress galvanized the opposition, spurring the creation of an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of supporters of Jackson, Crawford, and Vice President Calhoun.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=114–120}}.</ref> Following the 1826 elections, Calhoun and [[Martin Van Buren]] (who brought along many of Crawford's supporters) agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 election]].<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=127–128}}.</ref> In the press, the two major political factions were referred to as "Adams Men" and "Jackson Men".<ref name="Howe 2007 251">{{harvp|Howe|2007|p=251}}</ref>

The [[Jacksonian democracy|Jacksonians]] formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques and emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=275–277}}</ref> Though Jackson did not articulate a detailed political platform in the same way that Adams did, his coalition was united in opposition to Adams's reliance on government planning and tended to favor the opening of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] lands to white settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=279–280}}</ref> Ultimately, Jackson won 178 of the 261 electoral votes and just under 56 percent of the popular vote.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=181–183}}.</ref> Jackson won 50.3 percent of the popular vote in the free states and 72.6 percent of the vote in the slave states.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=281–283}}</ref> The election marked the permanent end of the Era of Good Feelings and the start of the [[Second Party System]]. The dream of non-partisan politics, shared by Monroe, Adams, and many earlier leaders, was shattered, replaced with Van Buren's ideal of partisan battles between legitimated political parties.<ref name="auto">{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=185–187, 195}}.</ref>