Editing Devadasi (section)

==History==
The practice became significant when one of the great queens of the [[Somavamshi dynasty]] decided that in order to honour the gods, certain women who were trained in classical dancing, should be married to the deities.<ref>Sahoo, supra note 14</ref> The inception of the practice was one that was imbued with great respect as the women who were chosen to become ''devadasi'' or “Devidasi”
were subject to two great honors: first, because they were literally married to the deity, they were to be treated as if they were the [[goddess Lakshmi]] herself,  and second, the women were honored  because they were considered to be "those great women who (could) control natural human impulses, their five senses  and [could] submit themselves completely to God."<ref>Sahoo, supra note 14 (internal quotations omitted).</ref> As they were married to an immortal, the women were considered to be  auspicious. Their main duties, in addition to committing to a life without marriage (to a mortal, in the common, popular sense), were to take care of a temple and learn classical Indian dances, usually the [[Bharatnatyam|Bharatanatyam]], which they would perform at temple rituals. Patrons were considered to have higher status for their ability to financially sponsor Devadasis.<ref>Lee, supra note 11.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/37z853br|doi = 10.5070/L3221026367|title = The Devadasi System: Temple Prostitution in India|year = 2015|last1 = Shingal|first1 = Ankur|journal = UCLA Women's Law Journal|volume = 22|doi-access = free}}</ref>

According to temple worship rules, or [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamas]], dance and music are the necessary aspects of daily [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] for temple deities. Devadasis were known by various local terms such as ''Basavi'' in [[Karnataka]], ''Matangi'' in [[Maharashtra]], and ''Kalavantin'' in [[Goa and Damaon]].<ref name="goa">{{cite book|title=Goa to Me|last1=De Souza|first1=Teotonio R.|date=1994|publisher=Concept |isbn=978-8170225041|page=68<!--, 9788170225041|access-date=4 April 2017-->}}</ref> Devadasis were also known as ''Jogini'', ''Venkatasani'', ''Nailis'', ''Muralis'' and ''Theradiyan''. Devadasi is sometimes referred to as a [[caste]] ([[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]); however some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasi themselves there exists a devdasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti (sub-caste). Later, the office of devdasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). In Europe the term ''bayadere'' (from {{langx|fr|bayadère}}, from {{langx|pt|balhadeira}}, literally ''dancer'') was occasionally used.<ref>Bayadère. Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 1 February 2008 from Oxford English Dictionary.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/bayad%c3%a8re/8475?q=bayad%c3%a8re#8425/8475?q=bayad%c3%a8re|title=Dictionnaire de français > bayadère|website=Larousse|location=Paris|access-date=9 February 2019|quote=portugais ''bailhadeira'', de ''balhar'', forme dialectale de ''bailar'', danser}}</ref>

===Ancient and medieval period===
The definite origin of the Devadasi or Devidasi tradition is murky due to its early inception.<ref>National Human Rights Commission of India and United Nations Development Fund For Women, [http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/ ReportonTrafficking.pdf "A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003"] (2004). "There is no substantial evidence of the origin of culturally sanctioned practices in India, though it has been suggested by historians that the devadasi system was known in prehistoric cities in India..." p. 195 (emphasis added)</ref>  Many scholars have noted that the tradition has no basis in scriptures. [[A. S. Altekar]] states that, "the custom of association of dancing girls with temples is unknown to ''[[Jataka]]'' literature. It is not mentioned by Greek writers, and the [[Arthashastra]], which describes in detail the life of ''Ganika'', is silent about it."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|jstor=j.ctv301d7f|title=Women and religion: Contemporary and future challenges in the Global Era|date=2018|publisher=Bristol University Press|isbn=9781447336365|editor-last=Ruspini|editor-first=Elisabetta|edition=1|pages=79–92|doi=10.2307/j.ctv301d7f.9|editor-last2=Bonifacio|editor-first2=Glenda Tibe|editor-last3=Corradi|editor-first3=Consuelo|chapter=Divine shadows }}</ref>

The tradition of female artists in temples is said to have developed during the 3rd century CE. A reference to such dancers is found in the [[Meghadūta]] of [[Kālidāsa]], a classical poet and [[Sanskrit]] writer of the [[Gupta Empire]].<ref name=":0" /> An example of reference to a Devadasi in the 3rd century CE in [[South India]] is [[Madhavi (Silappatikaram)|Madhavi]] found in the [[Cilappatikaram|Silappadikaram]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jaiganesh |first=B. |date=2021-07-09 |title=The Psychological Acumens in the Construction of the Two Characters Manimegalai and Kayasandigai |url=https://www.annalsofrscb.ro/index.php/journal/article/view/8824 |journal=Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology |language=en |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=16100–16106}}</ref><ref>Aparimita Pramanik Sahoo, [http://www.orissadiary.com/Showyournews.asp?id=26 "A Brief History of Devadasi System"], ''Orissa-Diary'' (July 18, 2006). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019205833/http://orissadiary.com/Showyournews.asp?id=26 |date=19 October 2007 }}. At the same  time, other experts argue that the institution is "far older, and claim that what is arguably one of the most ancient extant pieces of Indian art, a small bronze of a naked dancing girl from Mohenjo-daro, dating to around 2500 B.C., could depict a devadasi."</ref> Other sources include the works of authors such as [[Xuanzang]], a Chinese traveller, and [[Kalhana]], a [[Kashmir]]i historian. An inscription dated to the 11th century suggests that there were 400 ''Devadasis'' attached to the [[Brihadisvara Temple|Thanjavur temple]] in South India. Similarly, there were 500 ''Devadasis'' at the ''Someshvara'' shrine of [[Gujarat]].<ref name=":0" /> Between the 6th and 13th centuries, ''Devadasis'' had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.<ref name=":0" />

====Devdasis in South India and the Chola Empire and Vijayanagara Empire====
[[File:Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, dedicated to Vishnu, in Srirangam, near Tiruchirappali (151) (37465657406).jpg|thumb|Vellayi Gopuram in [[Srirangam]]; one of the temple gateways named after devadasi Vellayi in 14th century.<ref>{{cite news |title=The legend of Vellayi |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/the-legend-of-vellayi/article2774700.ece |work=The Hindu |date=4 January 2012 |language=en-IN}}</ref> ]]
The [[Chola]] empire supported the Devadasi system; in Tamil Devadasis were known as ''Devar Adigalar'' ("Deva" means "Divine" and "Adigalar" "Servants", i.e. "Servants of the Divine"). Both male and female Devadasas and Devadasis were dedicated to the service of Hindu temples and their deities. The Chola empire developed the tradition of music and dance employed during temple festivals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natgeotraveller.in/temple-run-the-sacred-structures-of-the-chola-dynasty-in-tamil-nadu/|title=Temple Run: The Sacred Structures of the Chola Dynasty in Tamil Nadu|website=National Geographic Traveller India|access-date=20 November 2018}}</ref>

Inscriptions indicate that 400 dancers, along with their [[guru]]s and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadisvara temple, [[Thanjavur]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/Thanjavur-through-the-ages/article15941242.ece|title=Thanjavur through the ages|date=15 March 2009|access-date=20 November 2018|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> with munificent grants including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves, and nuts.<ref name="hinduonnet">{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/folio/fo9812/98120060.htm |title=Where are the master gurus? |date=December 27, 1998 |first=Gowri |last=Ramnarayan |website=The Hindu |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013145724/http://www.hinduonnet.com/folio/fo9812/98120060.htm |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasis during their performances. The Nattuvanars conducted the orchestra while the Devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions indicate that Nattuvanars taught the Chola queen and princess Kundavai.<ref name="hinduonnet" />

As the Chola empire expanded in wealth and size, more temples were built throughout the country. Soon other empresses and emperors started imitating the Chola empire and adopted Devadasi systems of their own.{{Citation needed|date=August 2016}}

Portuguese traveler [[Domingo Paes]] who visited [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in 16th century describes the presence of Devadasis in the empire. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Sewell |first1=Robert |title=A Forgotten Empire: (Vijayanagar) a Contribution to the History of India |date=1900 |publisher=S. Sonnenschein & Company, Limited |isbn=978-0-7165-2137-2 |page=270 |language=en}}</ref>

{{blockquote|''"The women begin to dance, while some of them place themselves in the circular galleries that I have said were (erected) at their gate of entrance. Who can fitly describe to you the great riches these women carry on their persons? - collars of gold with so many diamonds and rubies and pearls, bracelets also on their arms and on their upper arms, girdles below, and of necessity anklets on the feet. The marvel should be otherwise, namely that women of such a profession should obtain such wealth; but there are women among them who have lands that have been given to them, and litters, and so many maid-servants that one cannot number all their things. There is a woman in this city who is said to have a hundred thousand pardaos and I believe this from what I have seen of them. These women live in the best streets that there are in the city; it is the same in all their cities, their streets have the best rows of houses. They are very much esteemed, and are classed amongst those honored ones who are the mistresses of the captains; any respectable man may go to their houses without any blame attaching thereto. These women (are allowed) even to enter the presence of the wives of the king, and they stay with them and eat betel with them, a thing which no other person may do, no matter what his rank may be."''}}

===Natavalollu===
A community of Karnataka living in [[Andhra Pradesh]], the ''Natavalollu'' were are also known as ''Nattuvaru'', ''Bogam'', ''Bhogam'', and ''Kalavanthulu''.

It was customary in the [[Krishna district]] of [[Tenali]] for each family to give one girl to the Devadasi system. These dancers were known as ''Devadasis''. As part of a social reform, a written agreement was made to formally end the practice.

''Ādapāpas'' were female attendants to the ladies of the families of [[Zamindar]]s. Ādapāpas were not allowed to marry. In some places such as the Krishna and [[Godāvari]] districts, Ādapāpas were known as ''Khasa'' or ''Khasavandlu''.<ref name="google">{{cite book|last=Thurston|first=Edgar|title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India |volume=I  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6gm2K6VMwAC&pg=PT103|year=1909|publisher=Library of Alexandria|isbn=978-1-4655-8236-2|page=103}}</ref>

''Natavalollu''/''Kalawants'' were a community that was distributed throughout the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. They were also referred to as ''Devadasi'', ''Bogamvallu'', ''Ganikulu'', and ''Sani''. ''Kalavantulu'' means one who is engaged in art.<ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=India's Communities|last1=Singh |first1=K. S.|author2=Anthropological Survey of India|date=1998|volume=5|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780195633542|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9MVAQAAMAAJ|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref> [[Davesh Soneji]] writes that, "By the early twenty-first century, large numbers of women in the Kalavanthulu community had converted to Christianity, because this promised them a stable monthly income as members of the new rehabilitation programs of these missions."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eo81ouc5OgQC&pg=PA260|title=Unfinished Gestures: Devadasis, Memory, and Modernity in South India|last=Soneji|first=Davesh|date=2012|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-76809-0}}</ref>

==== Mahari Devadasi of Odisha ====
In the eastern state of [[Odisha]] Devadasis were known colloquially as [[Mahari dance|Maharis]] of the [[Jagannath Temple (Puri)|Jagannath temple complex]]. The term ''Devadasi'' referred to the women who danced inside the temple. Devadasi, or mahari, means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)". Mahari is a contraction of ''Mahan Nari'', translating to, "the woman belonging to God". [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]] had defined Devadasis as ''Sebayatas'' who served God through dance and music. [[Pankaj Charan Das]], the oldest guru of [[Odissi]] classical dance and who comes from a Mahari family, defines Mahari as ''Maha Ripu-Ari'', one who conquers the six main ripus – enemies.<ref name="MHO">{{cite web|url=http://www.ukhap.nic.in/homepages/Appan/maharis.html|title=The Sacred & the Profane – The Conference &#124; Mahari of Odisha|access-date=8 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930103507/http://www.ukhap.nic.in/homepages/Appan/maharis.html|archive-date=30 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Unlike other parts of India, the Odia Mahari Devadasis were never sexually liberal and were expected to remain celibate upon becoming Devadasis. However, there are records of Odia Mahari Devadasi having relationships and children. It is said that the daughters of the Maharis of the Jagannath temple took to other professions such as nursing in the mid-20th century due to stigma attached to their inherent profession, as dance was frowned up during the colonial era.

The 1956 Orissa Gazette lists nine Devadasis and eleven temple musicians. By 1980, only four Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilaprabha, Parashmani, and [[Sashimani|Shashimani]]. By 1998, only Shashimani and Parashmani were still alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped, although Shashimani and Parashmani served in a few of the yearly temple rituals such as ''Nabakalebara'', ''Nanda Utsava'', and ''Duara Paka'' during ''Bahuda Jatra''.<ref name="MHO"/> The last of the Devadasis, Shashimani, died on 19 March 2015, at the age of 92.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/24/world/asia/sashimani-devi-last-of-indias-jagannath-temple-ritual-dancers-dies-at-92.html?_r=0|title = Sashimani Devi, Last of India's Jagannath Temple Dancers, Dies at 92|date = 23 March 2015|website = The New York Times|last = Barry|first = Ellen}}</ref>

====Yellamma Cult of Karnataka in South India====
In the southern Indian state of Karnataka the Devadasi system was practiced for over 10 centuries. Chief among them was the [[Yellamma]] cult.<ref name="YM">{{cite web|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/people/yellamma/yellamma.htm|website=Kamat.com|title=The Yellamma Cult of India|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref>

There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most popular story indicates that Renuka was the daughter of a [[Brahmin]], who married the sage [[Jamadagni]], and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from the [[Malaprabha]] river for the sage's worship and rituals. One day at the river she saw a group of youths engaged in water sports and forgot to return home in time for her husband's worship and rituals, which made Jamadagni question her chastity. He ordered their sons one by one to punish their mother, but four of them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to become [[eunuchs]] and had Renuka beheaded by his fifth son, [[Parashurama]]. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle inspired her four eunuch sons as well as others to become her followers and worship her head.<ref name="YMSlaves">[http://cpamedia.com/culture/slave_girls_yellama/ "Yellamma Slaves"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328144857/http://www.cpamedia.com/culture/slave_girls_yellama/ |date=28 March 2007 }}</ref>{{fcn|date=May 2024}}

===Colonial era===

====Reformists and abolitionists====
Reformists and abolitionists considered the Devadasi a social evil due to their way of life, which had very widely degenerated into a system of prostitution.<ref name="web.archive.org">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190701100034/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/9354/078a7b8d78ca6197cee367c1cad97b7b34e6.pdf "Abuse of Lower Castes in South India: The Institution of Devadasi"]</ref>{{fcn|date=May 2024}} The first anti-[[Nautch]] and anti-dedication movement began in 1882, even though the [[British Raj|British colonial authorities]] officially maintained most brothels in India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-24530198|title=Horrors of India's brothels documented|work=BBC News|date=2013-11-23|access-date=2019-03-26|language=en-GB}}</ref>  The Irish missionary [[Amy Carmichael]] was active in helping Devadasi women to escape their situation.

In later period{{when|date=August 2021}} the devadasis were equated with prostitutes and their children were again given away to temples. Stigma was attached to a particular caste of devadasis and they were seen as prostitutes. After a certain age they were left to fend for themselves.<ref>Shingal, Ankur, [https://escholarship.org/content/qt37z853br/qt37z853br.pdf  ''The Devadasi System: Temple Prostitution in India''], 2015, ''UCLA Women's Law Journal'', Vol 22:1, {{doi|10.5070/L3221026367}}</ref>

As the Devadasi were equated with prostitutes, they also became associated with the spread of the [[venereal disease]] [[syphilis]] in India. During the British colonial period many British soldiers were exposed to venereal diseases in brothels, and Devadasis were misunderstood to be responsible. In an effort to control the spread of venereal disease the British Government mandated that all prostitutes register themselves. Devadasis were required to register, as they were thought to be prostitutes by the British Government.<ref name="Soneji 2012 https://archive.org/details/unfinishedgestur00sone/page/n126 112">{{cite book|last=Soneji|first=Davesh|title=Unfinished Gestures: Devadasis, Memory and Modernity in South India|url=https://archive.org/details/unfinishedgestur00sone|url-access=limited|year=2012|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-76809-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unfinishedgestur00sone/page/n126 112]}}</ref>

In addition to obligatory registration, the British Government also established institutions known as Lock Hospitals where women were brought in order to be treated for venereal diseases. However, many of the women admitted to these hospitals, including many Devadasi, were identified through the registry and then forcibly brought to the hospitals. A number of these women were confined in the hospitals permanently.<ref name="Soneji 2012 https://archive.org/details/unfinishedgestur00sone/page/n126 112"/>

Today, [[Sitavva Joddati]] of Karnataka helps former Devadasi find a foothold in mainstream society. In 1982 she was made a Devadasi at age seven. In 1997 she began the non-governmental organisation MASS (Mahila Abhivrudhi-Samrakshana Sansthe) in the [[Belagavi]] district of [[Ghataprabha]] to help women like her escape the Devadasi system and live a life of dignity. Between 1997 and 2017 MASS helped over 4,800 Devadasis reintegrate into mainstream society. In 2018 she received the [[Padmashri]] award at age 43.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/270118/urban-legend-conquering-a-cult-seetavva-shows-it-can-be-done.html|title=Urban Legend: Conquering a cult – Seetavva shows it can be done|date=27 January 2018|website=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=20 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/zp-honours-padma-shri-jodatti/article22616617.ece|title=ZP honours Padma Shri Jodatti|date=1 February 2018|access-date=20 November 2018|newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/padma-awardee-sitavva-mysuru-resident-find-mention-in-pm-modis-mann-ki-baat/articleshow/62688367.cms|title=Padma awardee Sitavva, Mysuru resident find mention in PM Modi's Mann ki Baat |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=20 November 2018}}</ref>

====Evolution of Bharatanatyam====
[[Rukmini Devi Arundale]], a [[theosophist]] trained in ballet, sought to re-appropriate the Devadasi dance traditions in a context perceived respectably by Indian society which had by then adopted the western morales. She altered the dance repertoire to exclude pieces perceived as erotic in their description of a deity. She also systematized the dance in a way that incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was a new version of [[Bharatanatyam]], which she taught professionally at the ''[[Kalakshetra]]'' school she established in Madras. Bharatanatyam is commonly seen as a very ancient dance tradition associated with the Natyashastra. However, Bharatanatyam as it is performed and known today is actually a product of Arundale's recent endeavour to remove the Devadasi dance tradition from the perceived immoral context associated with the Devadasi community and bring it into the upper caste performance milieu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Soneji|first=Davesh|title=Bharatnatyam: A reader|year=2010|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=India|isbn=978-0-19-808377-1}}</ref> She also adopted a lot of technical elements of ballet into the modified form of Bharatanatyam. To give the dance form a measure of respect [[E. Krishna Iyer|E Krishna Iyer]] and [[Rukmini Devi Arundale]] proposed a resolution at a 1932 meeting of the Madras Music Academy to rename ''Sadirattam'' to "Bharatanatyam" or Indian dance.<ref name="amandp120">[[#Weidman|Weidman]], Pg 120</ref>

===Legislative Initiatives===
The first legal initiative to outlaw the Devadasi system dates back to the 1934 [[Bombay Devadasi Protection Act]]. This act pertained to the [[Bombay]] province as it existed in the [[British Raj]]. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. In 1947, the year of Indian independence, the [[Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act]] outlawed dedication in the southern [[Madras Presidency]]. The Devadasi system was formally outlawed in all of India in 1988, although social and economic pressures on mostly [[Dalit]] families have ensured that the Devadasi system is still widely practiced illegally.<ref name="web.archive.org"/><ref name="skepdic.dev">{{cite web|url=http://www.skepdic.com/devadasi.html|title=devadasi|website=The Skeptic's Dictionary|access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref>